Publications

SUMMARY: A growing body of evidence makes plain that exposure to perceived racism-based events, particularly for Black emerging adults aged 18–29, represents a major public health concern in the United States given its widespread prevalence and documented association with adverse health outcomes. However, research on the prevalence and correlates of exposure to perceived racism-based police violence (RPV) for Black emerging adults is scant. The current study examines the prevalence and correlates of RPV exposure among a sample of 300 Black emerging adult college students, utilizing computer-assisted surveys.

CITATION: Motley, R., Williamson, E., & Quinn, C. (2024). Prevalence and Correlates of Exposure (Direct and Indirect) to Perceived Racism-Based Police Violence among Black Emerging Adult College Students. Social Work in Public Health, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/19371918.2024.2341838

SUMMARY: This study characterizes the profile of Black emerging adults aged 18-29 generated from sociodemographic characteristics and indicators of police contact and exposure to racism-based police violence (RPV), and the relationship between profiles and traumatic stress symptoms.

CITATION: Motley, R. O., Williamson, E., Pieterse, A. L., & Harris, M. (2024). Profiles of Black Emerging Adults Exposure to Racism-Based Police Violence and Associated Mental Health Outcomes. Emerging Adulthood, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/21676968241240182

SUMMARY: In this article, racism is defined and a discussion is offered on its impact on the health and well-being of Black adults in the United States; the intersection of racism and policing; contemporary racialized policing practices; emerging evidence on prevalence rates for exposure (direct and indirect) to perceived racism-based police violence and associated mental and behavioral health outcomes; and police accountability through executive, legislative, legal, and other remedies.

CITATION: Robert O. Motley Jr. and Christopher Baidoo (2023). Racism and Accountable Policing for Black Adults in the United States. National Association of Social Workers Press and Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.1639

SUMMARY: Exposure to police violence is a public health concern for Black emerging adults ages 18–29 given its prevalence and association with negative health outcomes. However, research examining the role of perceived police legitimacy in the relationship between exposure to police use of force and personal safety interventions is scant. This study investigated the mediating role of perceived police legitimacy in the relationship between exposure to police use of force and personal safety interventions (reliance on police, self, or others) in a sample of Black emerging adults.

CITATION: Robert O. Motley Jr. and Sean Joe (2023). Exposure to Police Use of Force, Perceived Police Legitimacy, and Personal Safety Interventions Among Black Emerging Adult College Students. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research 0 0:0, 000 000. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/717586

SUMMARY: Community violence exposure (CVE) and its health impact is a public health crisis. Violent crime has steadily increased over recent years and has disproportionately affected Black communities. Emerging adulthood (18–29 years old) is a vulnerable period of development and Black emerging adults may be at increased risk for negative physical and mental health consequences from CVE. This integrative review was conducted to evaluate the available evidence on health outcomes in Black emerging adults exposed to CVE. This review appraised published studies (2012–2022) addressing physical and mental health outcomes of Black emerging adults with CVE.

CITATION: Walker, D. T., Bills, K. L., & Motley, R. O. (2023). Physical and Mental Health Outcomes of Black Emerging Adults with Community Violence Exposure: An Integrative Review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380231194055

SUMMARY: Anxiety, depression, and psychological distress are public health concerns for Black emerging adults ages 18–29, given their prevalence in this population. However, we have scant empirical research investigating the prevalence and correlates of negative mental outcomes among Black emerging adults with a history of exposure to police use of force. Thus, the current study examined the prevalence and correlates of depression, anxiety, and psychological well-being and how they vary among a sample of Black emerging adults with a history of direct or indirect exposure to police use of force.

CITATION: Robert O Motley, Yu-Chih Chen, Jamie D Motley (2023). Prevalence and Correlates of Adverse Mental Health Outcomes among Male and Female Black Emerging Adults with a History of Exposure (Direct versus Indirect) to Police Use of Force, Social Work Research, Volume 47, Issue 2, Pages 125–134. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svad005

SUMMARY: Anxiety disorders are among the most prevalent disorders for Black emerging adults ages 18 to 29 in America. Moreover, some Black emerging adults with a history of exposure to police use of force may experience police contact anxiety (PCA) symptoms during (e.g., unable to relax) or in anticipation of future police contacts (e.g., urge to avoid police), which may develop into an anxiety disorder. 

CITATION: Motley, R., Chen, Y.C., Finner, A., Masood, Y., & Joe, S. (2023). Prevalence and Correlates of Police Contact Anxiety among Male and Female Black Emerging Adults in St. Louis, Missouri. Social Work Research. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svac032

SUMMARY: Suicidality (thinking about, planning, and attempting) has become a national growing public health concern for Black emerging adult college students in America due to increased rates among this population. The goal of the current cross-sectional study is to examine the mediating role of police contact anxiety (PCA) and moderating role of grit in the relationship between exposure to videos of police use of force in media and suicidality. 

CITATION: Motley, R., Simmons, E., Azasu, E., Clifton, M., Walker, D. T., & Carnayla Johnson. (2022). Utilizing a Mediation-Moderation Model to Examine Exposure to Videos of Police use of Force in Media, Police Contact Anxiety, Grit, and Suicidality among Black Emerging Adult College Students. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1086/722584

SUMMARY: Racial discrimination and cannabis use among Black emerging adults in America is a growing public health concern. However, research examining the relationship between exposure to perceived racism-based police use-of-force and cannabis use for this population is scant. This study examined the frequency of exposure (direct and indirect) to racism-based police use-of-force and its relationship with past 30-day cannabis use for a sample of Black emerging adult men and women 18–29 years of age.

CITATION: Motley, R. O., Jr., Byansi, W., Siddiqi, R., Bills, K., & Salas-Wright, C. P. (2022). Perceived Racism-based Police Use of Force and Cannabis Use among Black Emerging Adults. Addictive Behaviors Reports. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2022.100430

SUMMARY: Racism, whether intentional or unintentional, is a potentially stressful and traumatic event that has been shown to be detrimental to the health of Black populations in the US.4 Although findings from the study by Fani and colleagues2 suggests a neurobiological pathway of relevance to racism-associated stress, their study provides some support for the hypothesis that neurobiology may operate as an underlying process and mechanism by which recurring experiences of racism or constant fear or anticipation of a racism-based experience can lead to negative health-associated outcomes for some Black individuals. 

CITATION: Motley, R. O., Jr, & Rogers, C. (2021). Insights on Neural Response to Racist Threats. JAMA Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.1254

SUMMARY: This study provides evidence that direct (i.e., victimization or witnessing the event in person) and indirect (i.e., seen in media) exposure to perceived racism-based police violence is a measurable dimension of racist experiences with negative mental health consequences for Black emerging adults. Additionally, it extends our understanding of the frequency of distinct law enforcement-related racism-based experiences for this population by sex. 

CITATION: Motley, R. O., Jr., Joe, S., McQueen, A., Clifton, M., & Carlton, D. (2022). Development, Construct Validity, and Measurement Invariance of the Modified Classes of Racism Frequency of Racial Experiences Measure (M-CRFRE) to Capture Direct and Indirect Exposure to Perceived Racism-Based Police use of Force for Black Emerging Adults. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000525

SUMMARY: The prevalence of community-based violence (CBV) exposure among black American male emerging adults ages 18 to 25 with a history of involvement with the criminal justice system is a major public health concern. Although exposure (whether as victim or witness) to CBV is linked with negative outcomes, empirical research examining black men’s negative emotional responses to seeing videos of real-life incidents of CBV on social media is scant. To address these identified concerns and make recommendations for future research, the present study examines the relationship between seeing videos of CBV on social media and three types of negative emotional responses (that is, feeling sad, angry, and fearful) prior to incarceration among a sample of 101 black men detained in a midwestern jail. 

CITATION: Robert O Motley, Yu-Chih Chen, Carnayla Johnson, Sean Joe (2020). Exposure to Community-Based Violence on Social Media among Black Male Emerging Adults Involved with the Criminal Justice System, Social Work Research, Volume 44, Issue 2, June 2020, Pages 87–97. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svaa002

SUMMARY: There is limited research about suicidal behaviors among Black emerging adults (peak age of suicide risk) who report exposure to police violence. The current study applies an integrated approach to examine individual, immediate environment, and community-based risk and protective factors of suicide among Black college students who reported previous exposure to police violence. 

CITATION: Szlyk, H., Motley, R., Joe, S., Nonas-Barnes, L., & Azasu, E. (2023). An Examination of Suicidal Behavior among Black College Students with Exposure to Police Violence. Social Work, 68(1), 18-27. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/swac046

SUMMARY: A significant treatment gap exists for incarcerated men with lifetime traumatic experiences. A small research base for trauma interventions for incarcerated women is emerging, but incarcerated men have largely been ignored. Men comprise 90% of the incarcerated population and are at the greatest risk to be rearrested for a new crime after release. One of the most overlooked, but highly influential, factors in poor postrelease outcomes of formerly incarcerated men is unaddressed symptoms resulting from lifetime traumatic experiences. Studies of incarcerated men report up to 98% have had at least one lifetime traumatic experience—many have experienced multiple traumas. With nearly 600,000 men releasing from incarceration each year, there is an urgent need to develop targeted interventions for incarcerated men. We aim to advance the field toward gender-specific and incarceration-responsive trauma intervention approaches. 

CITATION: Pettus-Davis., C., Renn, T., Lacasse, J. & Motley, R. (2019). Proposing a population-specific intervention approach to treat trauma among men before and after incarceration. Psychology of Men and Masculinity. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000171 

SUMMARY: Exposure to trauma, whether through witnessing or direct victimization, is often a daily reality for many Black males. Findings from this review suggest that 56-74% of Black males exposed to traumatic events may have an unmet need for mental health services. Future research examining the relationship between trauma and mental health service use for Black men and factors that moderate and/or mediate this relationship is warranted.

CITATION: Motley, R. & Banks, A. (2018). Black males, trauma, and mental health service Use: Asystematic review. Perspectives on Social Work, 14(1), 4-19. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc6292675/

SUMMARY: Black emerging adults ages 18–29, particularly those residing in predominantly black urban communities, are at risk for community violence exposure (CVE). This potentially traumatic event may induce traumatic stress reactions for black emerging adults that contribute to their engagement in violence perpetration, substance use and/or sexual risk-taking behaviors as a way to cope with their experiences. To address these identified concerns and make recommendations for future research, this article identifies and synthesizes results from studies that have examined CVE and its association with violence perpetration, substance use, and sexual risk-taking behaviors among black emerging adults.

CITATION: Motley, R., Sewell, W., & Chen, Y.C. (2017). Community violence exposure and risk-taking behaviors among black emerging adults: A systematic review. Journal of Community Health, 42(5), 1069-1078. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10900-017-0353-4

SUMMARY: Disparities in police responses to Black and White people have received significant research and public attention in recent years. This study examines self-reported accounts of exposure to and perceptions of police use of force among Black and White ethnic groups by sex and income level. 

CITATION: Motley, R., & Joe, S. (2018). Police use of force by ethnicity, sex, and socioeconomic class. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research, 9(1), 49-67. https://doi.org/10.1086/696355