1 See 42 U.S.C. � 2000e-2(a) (2000).
2 See id.
3 See, e.g., Cumpiano v. Banco Santander P.R., 902 F.2d 148, 156 (1st Cir. 1990).
4 See id.
5 See id.
6 See 42 U.S.C. � 2000e-2(a)(1).
7 See Elizabeth Clack-Freeman, Title VII and Plaintiff’s Replacement: A Prima Facie Consideration?, 50 Baylor L. Rev. 463, 469 (1998).
8 See, e.g., Brown v. McLean, 159 F.3d 898, 905 (4th Cir. 1998); Talley v. Bravo Pitino Rest., Ltd., 61 F.3d 1241, 1246 (6th Cir. 1995).
9 See Brown, 159 F.3d at 905; Talley, 61 F.3d at 1246.
10 See Brown, 159 F.3d at 905; Talley, 61 F.3d at 1246.
11 See, e.g., Walker v. NationsBank of Fla. N.A., 53 F.3d 1548, 1556 n.12 (11th Cir. 1995); Walker v. St. Anthony’s Med. Ctr., 881 F.2d 554, 558 (8th Cir. 1989); Simens v. Reno, 960 F. Supp. 6, 8, 10 (D.D.C. 1997).
12 See, e.g., Kendrick v. Penske Transport. Servs., Inc., 220 F.3d 1220, 1228–29 (10th Cir. 2000); St. Anthony’s, 881 F.2d at 558.
13 See, e.g., Kendrick, 220 F.3d at 1228–29; Pivirotto v. Innovative Sys., Inc., 191 F.3d 344, 353 (3d Cir. 1999); St. Anthony’s, 881 F.2d at 558; see also Clack-Freeman, supra note 7, at 470.
14 See infra notes 184–229 and accompanying text.
15 See 411 U.S. 792, 802–05 (1973); infra notes 23–31 and accompanying text.
16 See infra notes 32–155 and accompanying text.
17 See infra notes 52–71 and accompanying text.
18 See infra notes 72–105 and accompanying text.
19 See infra notes 106–155 and accompanying text.
20 See infra notes 156–183 and accompanying text.
21 See infra notes 184–229 and accompanying text.
22 See infra notes 184–229 and accompanying text.
23 See David G. Harris, Employment Law: O’Connor v. Consolidated Coin Caterers Corp.—Eliminating the Replacement Outside the Protected Class Element in ADEA Hiring and Replacement Cases, 50 Okla. L. Rev. 282, 289 (1997).
24 See 411 U.S. 792, 802–05 (1973).
25 Id. at 802.
26 Id.
27 See Denny Chin & Jodi Golinsky, Moving Beyond McDonnell Douglas: A Simplified Method for Assessing Evidence in Discrimination Cases, 64 Brook. L. Rev. 659, 665 (1998).
28 See McDonnell Douglas, 411 U.S. at 804.
29 See id. at 794, 802.
30 See, e.g., Williams v. Ford Motor Co., 14 F.3d 1305, 1308 (8th Cir. 1994); Cumpiano v. Banco Santander P.R., 902 F.2d 148, 153 (1st Cir. 1990).
31 See, e.g., Williams, 14 F.3d at 1308; Cumpiano, 902 F.2d at 153.
32 See, e.g., Brown v. McLean, 159 F.3d 898, 905 (4th Cir. 1998); Talley v. Bravo Pitino Rest., Ltd., 61 F.3d 1241, 1246 (6th Cir. 1995); Walker v. NationsBank of Fla. N.A., 53 F.3d 1548, 1556 (11th Cir. 1995); Edwards v. Wallace Cmty. Coll., 49 F.3d 1517, 1521 (11th Cir. 1995).
33 See Clack-Freeman, supra note 7, at 465; Christina M. Sautter, A Matter of Class: The Impact of Brown v. McLean on Employee Discharge Cases, 46 Vill. L. Rev. 421, 430 (2001).
34 See McDonnell Douglas Corp. v. Green, 411 U.S. 792, 802 n.13 (1973).
35 See Clack-Freeman, supra note 7, at 465.
36 See, e.g., Brown, 159 F.3d at 905; Talley, 61 F.3d at 1246.
37 See Talley, 61 F.3d at 1246; Mitchell v. Toledo Hosp., 964 F.2d 577, 582–83 (6th Cir. 1992).
38 159 F.3d at 905.
39 Id. at 900–01.
40 Id. at 901.
41 Id.
42 Id. at 905.
43 Brown, 159 F.3d at 905.
44 Id. at 905–06.
45 Id. at 906.
46 See Sautter, supra note 33, at 446–47.
47 See Howard v. Roadway Express, Inc., 726 F.2d 1529, 1535 (11th Cir. 1984); see also Sautter, supra note 33, at 446–47.
48 See, e.g., Talley, 61 F.3d at 1247; Mitchell, 964 F.2d at 582–83.
49 61 F.3d at 1244.
50 Id. at 1248.
51 Id. at 1247.
52 See, e.g., NationsBank, 53 F.3d at 1556 n.12; Edwards, 49 F.3d at 1521.
53 See 49 F.3d at 1521 n.6.
54 See id. at 1521.
55 See id.
56 Id.
57 See Brown, 159 F.3d at 905–06; Edwards, 49 F.3d at 1521.
58 Edwards, 49 F.3d at 1521.
59 See id.
60 See 53 F.3d at 1556, 1559.
61 Id. at 1556.
62 See id. at 1556 n.12.
63 See id.
64 See id.
65 See 960 F. Supp. 6, 8, 10 (D.D.C. 1997).
66 Id. at 7–8.
67 Id.
68 Id. at 8.
69 Id. at 9, 10.
70 See Simens, 960 F. Supp. at 10.
71 See id.
72 See, e.g., Kendrick v. Penske Transport. Servs., Inc., 220 F.3d 1220, 1228–29 (10th Cir. 2000); Walker v. St. Anthony’s Med. Ctr., 881 F.2d 554, 558 (8th Cir. 1989); see Clack-Freeman, supra note 7, at 470.
73 See Kendrick, 220 F.3d at 1228–29; St. Anthony’s, 881 F.2d at 558.
74 See Kendrick, 220 F.3d at 1229 n.8; Meiri v. Dacon, 759 F.2d 989, 996 (2d Cir. 1985).
75 See 759 F.2d at 995–96.
76 Id. at 992.
77 Id. at 993 n.3.
78 See id. at 995–96.
79 See id. at 996.
80 See Meiri, 759 F.2d at 996 (quoting Furnco Constr. Corp. v. Waters, 438 U.S. 567, 577 (1978)).
81 See id.
82 220 F.3d at 1223, 1224, 1226.
83 See id. at 1226 n.5.
84 See id. at 1226 n.5, 1229.
85 See id. at 1229 n.8.
86 Id.
87 See Kendrick, 220 F.3d at 1229 n.8.
88 See 108 F.3d 621, 624 n.7 (5th Cir. 1997).
89 See id.
90 Id. at 623.
91 Id. at 624.
92 See id.
93 See Nieto, 108 F.3d at 623–24.
94 See id. at 624 n.6.
95 Id. at 625.
96 218 F.3d 481, 485 (5th Cir. 2000).
97 Id. at 483.
98 See id. at 485.
99 See id.
100 See 209 F.3d 419, 427 (5th Cir. 2000).
101 Id. at 422, 423.
102 Id.
103 Id.
104 Id. at 426–27.
105 See Byers, 209 F.3d at 427.
106 See, e.g., Pivirotto v. Innovative Sys., Inc., 191 F.3d 344, 355 (3d Cir. 1999); Cumpiano v. Banco Santander P.R., 902 F.2d 148, 156 (1st Cir. 1990); Howard, 726 F.2d at 1536.
107 See Carson v. Bethlehem Steel Corp., 82 F.3d 157, 158 (7th Cir. 1996); Howard, 726 F.2d at 1536.
108 See Carson, 82 F.3d at 158; Williams v. Ford Motor Co., 14 F.3d 1305, 1308 (8th Cir. 1994); Howard, 726 F.2d at 1535.
109 See 726 F.2d at 1535.
110 Id. at 1530, 1531.
111 Id. at 1530–31.
112 Id. at 1534.
113 See id.
114 See Howard, 726 F.2d at 1534.
115 See id. at 1535.
116 See id.
117 Id. at 1536. Here, the court applied the reasoning of the United States Supreme Court in 1982 in Connecticut v. Teal, a disparate impact case in which the Court “struck down a racially discriminatory promotion examination notwithstanding the fact that the ultimate result of the promotional process was an appropriate racial balance.” See id. In Teal, the Court stated that the principal focus of Title VII was “the protection of the individual employee, rather than the protection of the minority group as a whole.” See 457 U.S. 440, 453–54 (1982). The Supreme Court stated that an employer may not discriminate against specific employees with impunity merely because it favorably treated other members in the same protected class as the employees. See Howard, 726 F.2d at 1536 (citing Teal, 457 U.S. at 455).
118 See 191 F.3d at 347.
119 Id. at 349.
120 Id.
121 See id. at 352.
122 See id.
123 See Pivirotto, 191 F.3d at 352–53.
124 Id. at 352. Examples of lawful reasons include that the employer did not fill the position that an applicant sought for economic reasons, the applicant was not qualified, or the employer did not actually take any adverse action, such as failure to hire or termination. See id.
125 See id. at 353.
126 See id.
127 See id. at 353–54.
128 See Pivirotto, 191 F.3d at 353.
129 See id. at 353–54.
130 See id. at 354.
131 See id.
132 See id. at 354.
133 See Pivirotto, 191 F.3d at 354.
134 See id.
135 See 82 F.3d at 158.
136 Id.
137 See id. at 158–59.
138 See id. at 158.
139 See id. at 159.
140 See 199 F.3d 1126, 1137 (10th Cir. 1999).
141 See id.
142 See id.
143 See id. at 1130–31.
144 Id. at 1131, 1140.
145 See Perry, 199 F.3d at 1130–31.
146 Id. at 1130.
147 Id. at 1130, 1131.
148 Id. at 1131.
149 See id. at 1139.
150 See Perry, 199 F.3d at 1139.
151 See 902 F.2d at 156.
152 See id.
153 See id.
154 See id.
155 See id.; Howard, 726 F.2d at 1536.
156 See St. Mary’s Honor Ctr. v. Hicks, 509 U.S. 502, 527 n.1 (1993).
157 See, e.g., Pivirotto v. Innovative Sys., Inc., 191 F.3d 344, 353 (3d Cir. 1999); Brown v. McLean, 159 F.3d 898, 905 (4th Cir. 1998); Simens v. Reno, 960 F. Supp. 6, 8–9 (D.D.C. 1997). The first Supreme Court case mentioned a Title VII plaintiff’s replacement and the second case dealt with the replacement requirement in an age discrimination context. See O’Connor v. Consol. Coin Caterers Corp., 517 U.S. 308, 311–13 (1996); Hicks, 509 U.S. at 506.
158 509 U.S. at 504, 506.
159 Id. at 509.
160 See id. at 506.
161 See, e.g., Brown, 159 F.3d at 905.
162 Hicks, 509 U.S. at 528 n.1.
163 See 517 U.S. at 313.
164 See id. at 309, 310.
165 See id. at 311–12 (quoting Tex. Dep’t of Cmty. Affairs v. Burdine, 450 U.S. 248, 254 n.7 (1981)).
166 See id. at 312.
167 See id.
168 O’Connor, 517 U.S. at 313.
169 See, e.g., Stella v. Mineta, 284 F.3d 135, 145 (D.C. Cir. 2002); Carson v. Bethlehem Steel Corp., 82 F.3d 157, 158 (7th Cir. 1996); Simens, 960 F. Supp. at 8.
170 See 960 F. Supp. at 8.
171 Id. at 7–8.
172 See id. at 8.
173 See id. at 9.
174 See id.
175 See Simens, 960 F. Supp. at 9.
176 See id.
177 See id.
178 See 191 F.3d at 354–55.
179 See id. at 354.
180 See id. at 354–55.
181 See id. at 355.
182 See id.
183 See Pivirotto, 191 F.3d at 355.
184 See supra notes 32–155 and accompanying text.
185 See supra notes 36–51 and accompanying text.
186 See supra notes 52–105 and accompanying text.
187 See supra notes 106–155 and accompanying text.
188 See supra notes 106–155 and accompanying text.
189 See, e.g., Nieto v. L&H Packing Co., 108 F.3d 621, 624 n.7 (5th Cir. 1997).
190 See supra notes 106–155 and accompanying text.
191 See Chin & Golinsky, supra note 27, at 660.
192 See id.
193 See Jones v. W. Geophysical Co. of Am., 669 F.2d 280, 284 (5th Cir. 1982) (citing Tex. Dep’t of Cmty. Affairs v. Burdine, 450 U.S. 248, 253 (1981)).
194 See Chin & Golinsky, supra note 27, at 668.
195 See id. at 665.
196 See id.
197 See id. at 671.
198 See id.
199 See Chin & Golinsky, supra note 27, at 671.
200 See supra notes 106–155 and accompanying text.
201 See Pivirotto v. Innovative Sys., Inc., 191 F.3d 344, 355 (3d Cir. 1999); Cumpiano v. Banco Santander P.R., 902 F.2d 148, 156 (1st Cir. 1990); Meiri v. Dacon, 759 F.2d 989, 995–96 (2d Cir. 1985).
202 See Connecticut v. Teal, 457 U.S. 440, 453–54 (1982); Howard v. Roadway Express, Inc., 726 F.2d 1529, 1536 (11th Cir. 1984).
203 See Meiri, 759 F.2d at 996.
204 See id.
205 See Perry v. Woodward, 199 F.3d 1126, 1137 (10th Cir. 1999); Pivirotto, 191 F.3d at 354.
206 See Perry, 199 F.3d at 1137; Pivirotto, 191 F.3d at 354.
207 See Perry, 199 F.3d at 1137; Pivirotto, 191 F.3d at 354.
208 See Cumpiano, 902 F.2d at 156. But see Sengupta v. Morrison-Knudsen Co., 804 F.2d 1072, 1075 (9th Cir. 1986).
209 See Cumpiano, 902 F.2d at 156.
210 See Perry, 199 F.3d at 1137; Brown v. McLean, 159 F.3d 898, 905–06 (4th Cir. 1998); Howard, 726 F.2d at 1535.
211 See Brown, 159 F.3d at 905–06; Howard, 726 F.2d at 1535.
212 See Perry, 199 F.3d at 1137.
213 See id.
214 See Pivirotto, 191 F.3d at 353; Carson v. Bethlehem Steel Corp., 82 F.3d 157, 158 (7th Cir. 1996).
215 See Pivirotto, 191 F.3d at 353; Carson, 82 F.3d at 158.
216 See Brown, 159 F.3d at 905–06; Howard, 726 F.2d at 1535.
217 See 517 U.S. 308, 311–13 (1996); Pivirotto, 191 F.3d at 355.
218 See O’Connor, 517 U.S. at 312.
219 See Pivirotto, 191 F.3d at 355.
220 See id.
221 See id.
222 See id.
223 See O’Connor, 517 U.S. at 313.
224 See Perry, 199 F.3d at 1137.
225 See e. christi cunningham, The Rise of Identity Politics I: The Myth of the Protected Class in Title VII Disparate Treatment Cases, 30 Conn. L. Rev. 441, 442–43 (1998).
226 See id. at 449.
227 See id. at 478.
228 See id. at 478–79.
229 See id.