* Canada Research Chair in Internet and E-commerce Law, University of Ottawa, Faculty of Law and Technology Counsel, Osler, Hoskin & Harcourt LLP. The author would like to thank the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for its support through the Initiative on the New Economy grant program; Goldie Bassi, William Karam, and Candice Teitlebaum for their research assistance; Rene Geist, and the participants at the Boston College Symposium on Intellectual Property, the Internet, and Electronic Commerce; the National Law School of India; Yale Law School; Ottawa Centre for Research and Innovation’s 45th Circuit; and the Ontario Bar Association E-commerce law section for comments on earlier versions of this paper. Any errors or omissions remain the sole responsibility of the author.
1 President William J. Clinton & Vice President Albert Gore, Jr., Framework for Global Electronic Commerce (July 1, 1997), at http://www.ta.doc.gov/digeconomy/framewrk. htm (last visited Feb. 3, 2003); see Memorandum on Electronic Commerce, 2 Pub. Papers 898, 899 (1997); see also U.S. Info. Agency, A Framework for Global Electronic Commerce, GLOBAL ISSUES, Oct. 1997, at 33, 34 (summarizing principles outlined in the Framework), available at http://usinfo.state.gov/journals/itgic/1097/ijge/ijge1097.pdf.
2 See Clinton & Gore, supra note 1.
3 See Miguel Helft, Dog Days for Pet Sites, Standard, Jun. 12, 2000, at http://www.the standard.com/article/display/0,1151,15692,00.html.
4 John Perry Barlow, A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace (Feb. 8, 1996), at http://www.eff.org/~barlow/Declaration-Final.html.
5 Pub. L. No. 104-104, 110 Stat. 133 (codified as amended in scattered sections of 47 U.S.C.).
6 See Reno v. ACLU, 521 U.S. 844, 874 (1997) (holding the CDA lacked the precision required by the First Amendment to regulate the content of speech); Electronic Privacy Information Center, EPIC Hails Supreme Court Internet “Indecency” Decision: Opinion “Preserves Both Free Speech And Personal Privacy” (June 26, 1997) (noting that “EPIC joined with the American Civil Liberties Union and 18 other plaintiffs in challenging the law on February 8, 1996, the day it was signed by President Clinton”), at http://www2.epic.org/cda/epic_sup_ct_statement.html.
7 Barlow, supra note 4.
8 See generally David R. Johnson & David Post, Law and Borders: The Rise of Law in Cyberspace, 48 Stan. L. Rev. 1367 (1996).
9 See id.
10 Id. at 1368–70.
11 Id. at 1370.
12 Id. at 1378–81.
13 Johnson & Post, supra note 8, 1379.
14 Id. at 1379–81. Post and Johnson have revisited and enhanced their proposal for rule-making in cyberspace. See generally David R. Johnson & David G. Post, And How Shall the Net Be Governed? A Mediation on the Relative Virtues of Decentralized, Emergent Law, in Coordinating the Internet 62 (Brian Kahin & James Keller eds., 1997). Post has also discussed the advantages of rule-making by those using the Internet. See David G. Post, Anarchy, State and the Internet: An Essay on Law-Making in Cyberspace, 1995 J. Online L. art. 3, par. 4, at 20–27.
15 See, e.g., Jack Goldsmith, Against Cyberanarchy, 65 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1199, 1200–01 (1998).
16 See, e.g., Paul Schiff Berman, The Globalization of Jurisdiction, 151 U. Pa. L. Rev. 311, 314–17 (2002); Adria Allen, Comment, Internet Jurisdiction Today, 22 Nw. J. Int’l L. & Bus. 69, 69–70 (2001); Timothy B. Nagy, Comment, Personal Jurisdiction and Cyberspace: Establishing Precedent in a Borderless Era, 6 CommLaw Conspectus 101, 101 (1998).
17 969 F. Supp. 160, 170–71 (S.D.N.Y. 1997).
18 Lawrence Lessig, Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace 6 (1999).
19 See generally id.
20 See Joel R. Reidenberg, Governing Networks and Rule-Making in Cyberspace, in Borders in Cyberspace 84 (Brian Kahin & Charles Nesson eds., 1997)
21 Lawrence Lessig, The Constitution of Code: Limitations on Choice-Based Critiques of Cyberspace Regulation, 5 CommLaw Conspectus 181, 183 (1997) (citations omitted).
22 See generally Lawrence Lessig, Constitution and Code, 27 Cumb. L. Rev. 1 (1996–97); Lawrence Lessig, Reading the Constitution in Cyberspace, 45 Emory L.J. 869 (1996); Lawrence Lessig, The Zones of Cyberspace, 48 Stan. L. Rev. 1403 (1996) [hereinafter Lessig, Zones].
23 See Lessig, supra note 18, at 6.
24 See Reidenberg, supra note 20, at 96–95, 100.
25 Id. at 96–100.
26 See Lessig, supra note 18, at 231–34.
27 Id. at 199.
28 See supra note 1 and accompanying text.
29 See Ministerial Declaration from European Ministerial Conference (Bonn, Germany), Global Information Networks: Realising the Potential (July 6–8, 1997) [hereinafter Ministerial Declaration], at http://europa.eu.int/ISPO/bonn/Min_declaration/i_finalen. html.
30 Global Bus. Dialogue on Elec. Commerce, GBDe 2000 Brochure 2, 7 [hereinafter GBDe 2000 Brochure] (on file with the author). Current information on the GBDe is available at http://www.gbde.org (last visited Mar. 2003).
31 See Gareth Grainger, Freedom of Expression and Regulation of Information in Cyberspace: Issues Concerning Potential International Cooperation Principles for Cyberspace, Address Before the UNESCO International Congress, INFOEthics ’98: Ethical, Legal and Societal Challenges of Cyberspace and Expert Meeting on Cyberspace Law 15–21 (Sept. 1, 1998) (transcript available at http://www.aba.gov.au/abanews/speeches/online_ serv/pdfrtf/ggmon98.pdf).
32 Id. at 44.
33 See Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: Action Plan on Promoting Safe Use of the Internet (Nov. 26, 1997), at http://www.midas.gr/info2000/ lab/internetact.doc (last modified Feb. 17, 2000).
As noted by the Communication:
The European Parliament has stated the need for self-regulation and urged Member States and the Commission to promote co-operation among industry (access and service providers), political decision-makers and users’ associations.
The Council requested Member States to encourage and facilitate self-regulatory systems including representative bodies for Internet service providers and users, effective codes of conduct and hot-line reporting mechanisms available to the public. The Commission was requested to foster co-ordination at Community level of self-regulatory and representative bodies and promote and facilitate the exchange of information on best practice in this area.
In the Bonn Declaration, ministers stressed the role which the private sector can play in protecting the interests of consumers and in promoting and respecting ethical standards, through properly-functioning systems of self-regulation in compliance with and supported by the legal system.
Id. (citations omitted). See Ministerial Declaration, supra note 29, for the Bonn Declaration referenced above.
34 See Barlow, supra note 4.
35 See Lessig, supra note 18, at 190–91.
36 See id. at 53, 99, 220–21. East Coast Code has been so-named because in the United States much of traditional regulation originates in Washington, D.C.; the tax code is an example of such traditional regulation. Id. at 53. West Coast Code, on the other hand, references the regulation of behavior by the “instructions imbedded in the software and hardware that make cyberspace work.” Id. Software and hardware code generally originate from programmers located on the West Coast of the United States. Id.
37 See id. at 107. For an explanation of open source software, see Marshall Brain, What Does Open Source Mean?, HowStuffWorks.com, at http://computer.howstuffworks.com/ question435.htm (last visited Mar. 24, 2003) (noting that with open source software, the source code to the software is readily available, which allows for modification and customization).
38 See Donna Wentworth, Deadline Time, Filter 1.3 (1998), at http://cyber.law.harvard. edu/filter/100198/ifwp.html.
39 See GBDe 2000 Brochure, supra note 30, at 3, 4.
40 See generally Johnson & Post, supra note 8.
41 See Information Technology Association of America, E-Commerce Taxation and the Limitations of Geolocation Tools, at http://www.itaa.org/taxfinance/docs/geolocationpa-per.pdf (last visited Jan. 30, 2003).
42 See Anick Jesdanun, The Potential and Peril of National Internet Boundaries, S.F. Examiner, Mar. 4, 2001, available at http://www.examiner.com/business/default.jsp?story=b. net.0107. Following from economic theory, Lessig noted that “[a] regulation need not be absolutely effective to be sufficiently effective.” See Lessig, Zones, supra note 22, at 1405. The same applies to bordering technologies: whether used for targeted marketing or to ensure legal compliance, it need not be perfect. See id.
43 See Stephanie Olsen, Tracking Web Users into European Territory, CNET News.com, Apr. 3, 2001, at http://news.com.com/2100-1023-836361.html; Bob Tedeschi, E-Commerce: Borders Returning to the Internet, NYTimes.com, Apr. 2, 2001, at http://www.nytimes.com/2001/ 04/02/technology/02ECOMMERCE.html.
44 Reuters, Nevada Governor Signs Online Gambling Bill, Casino City Newsl., June 19–25, 2001, at http://newsletter.casinocity.com/Issue41.
45 2001 Nev. Stat. 3075, 3076.
46 See Jesdanun, supra note 42; see also Jeff Tyson, How Internet Infrastructure Works, at http://computer.howstuffworks.com/internet-infrastructure.htm (last visited Mar. 24, 2003) (overview of how the Internet works).
47 See id.
48 For the company’s Web site, see Akamai.com; for company facts and figures, see http://www.akamai.com/en/html/about/facts_figures.html (last visited Mar. 2003). For information on Akamai’s Edgescape offering, see Products & Services, Edgescape, at http://www.akamai.com/en/html/services/edgescape.html (last visited Jan. 30, 2003).
49 Edgescape can identify a customer’s physical location (country, region, city, area code, zip code, etc.), network (connection type, e.g., dial-up; network name, e.g., AOL; actual connection speed), and corporate identity (company name, domain name). See How It Works, Akami, at http://www.akamai.com/en/html/services/edge_how_it_works. html (last visited Jan. 30, 2003).
50 See Stephanie Olsen, Tracking Web Users into European Territory, CNET News.com, Apr. 3, 2001, at http://news.com.com/2100-1023-836361.html. For Quova’s product description, see GeoPoint, at http://www.quova.com/description/services/geopoint.html (last visited Jan. 30, 2003).
51 See Patricia Jacobus, CinemaNow Appeases Studios By Locating Web Surfers, CNET News.com, Feb. 26, 2001, at http://news.com.com/2100-1023-253169.html.
52 See Movielink, at http://www.movielink.com (last visited Mar. 2003). Presently, the terms of use include the following:
11. NON-UNITED STATES RESIDENTS. The Services are available only to customers located in the United States of America, excluding its territories. If you are outside of the United States of America, kindly refrain from using the Services. Movielink makes no representation that the Services and any content or products offered on the Services and their copyrights, trademarks, patents, and licensing arrangements, are appropriate or available for use in locations other than in the United States of America.
Terms of Use, Movielink, at http://www.movielink.com/commerce/help/terms.jhtml (last visited Mar. 24, 2003).
53 See Declan McCullagh, Google Excluding Controversial Sites, CNET News.com, Oct. 23, 2002, at http://news.com.com/2100-1023-963132.html.
54 See, e.g., Tedeschi, supra note 43.
55 See generally Digital Millennium Copyright Act, Pub. L. No. 105-304, 112 Stat. 286 (1998) (codified in scattered sections of 17 U.S.C); Reuters, Copyright Bill Clears Congress, Wired News, Oct. 12, 1998, at http://www.wired.com/news/politics/0,1283,15571,00. html.
56 Declan McCullagh, Russian Adobe Hacker Busted, Wired News, July 17, 2001, at http://www.wired.com/news/politics/0,1283,45298,00.html.
57 Declan McCullagh, Hacker Arrest Stirs Protest, Wired News, July 19, 2001, at http://www.wired.com/news/politics/0,1283,45342,00.html.
58 Id.; McCullagh, supra note 56.
59 See Background & Status, at http://www.freesklyarov.org (last visited Jan. 31, 2003).
60 See Michelle Delio, Russian Hacker Charges Dropped, Wired News, Dec. 13, 2001, at http://www.wired.com/news/politics/0,1283,49122,00.html; Robert Lemos, Copyright Act Gags Programmers, ZDNet UK News, Sept. 7, 2001, at http://news.zdnet.co.uk/story/ 0,,t269-s2094786,00.html.
61 Adobe E-Book Hacker Released, Wired News, Aug. 6, 2001, at http://www.wired. com/news/politics/0,1283,45870,00.html; Electronic Frontier Foundation, Free Dmitry! What You Can Do To Help Set Dmitry Sklyarov Free, Action Alert (July 17, 2001), at http://www.eff.org/alerts/20010719_eff_sklyarov_alert.html.
62 Defense Motion to Dismiss Indictment for Lack of Jurisdiction at 17–18, United States v. Elcom, No. CR 01-20183 RMW (N.D. Cal. filed Jan. 14, 2002) [hereinafter Defense Motion], available at http://www.eff.org/IP/DMCA/US_v_Elcomsoft/20020114_elcom_ dismiss_juris_motion.pdf; Farhad Manjoo & Michelle Delio, Adobe Hackers: We’re Immune, Wired News, Mar. 4, 2002, at http://www.wired.com/news/politics/0,1283,50797,00.html. On December 17, 2002, a federal jury acquitted Elcomsoft on all criminal charges. Press Release, Electronic Frontier Foundation, Jury Acquits Elcomsoft in eBook Copyright Case (Dec. 17, 2002), at http://www.eff.org/IP/DMCA/US_v_Elcomsoft/20021217_eff_pr. html.
63 Defense Motion, supra note 62, at 17–18; Manjoo & Delio, supra note 62.
64 Defense Motion, supra note 62, at 16–17.
65 United States v. Elcom, No. CR 01-20138 RMW (N.D. Cal. Mar. 27, 2002) (order denying Defense motion to dismiss for lack of jurisdiction), available at http://www.eff.org/IP/DMCA/US_v_Elcomsoft/20020327_dismiss_deny_order.html.
The court noted in the judgment:
The court need not reach the issue of whether the Digital Millennium Copyright Act has extraterritorial application because the trafficking conduct for which defendants have been charged occurred in the United States. The conduct which underlies the indictment includes Elcomsoft’s offering its AEBPR program for sale over the internet, from a computer server physically located in the United States. Purchasers obtained copies of the program in the United States. A copy of the program was sold to a purchaser in California. Payments were directed to, and received by, an entity in the United States.
There is sufficient conduct occurring within the United States for there to be subject matter jurisdiction over this matter on a territorial basis.
Id.
66 See Government Opposition to Defense Motion to Dismiss for Lack of Jurisdiction at 10–12, United States v. Elcom, No. CR 01-20183 RMW (N.D. Cal. filed Feb. 8, 2002) (on file with author).
67 Id. at 10.
68 Id.
69 See Matt Loney, ISPs Buckle Under Copyright Cases, ZDNet UK News, Dec. 10, 2002, at http://news.zdnet.co.uk/story/0,,t269-s2127279,00.html (Although anyone can demand the take-down of allegedly infringing material, an ISPs removal of content is “not a simple process” and can leave the “ISPs open to legal action,” both “from the person giving notice and from their customers.”).
70 See Gov’t of Can., Supporting Culture and Innovation: Report on the Provisions and Operation of the Copyright Act, at iv, 43–44 (Oct. 2002), available at http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/pics/rp/section92eng.pdf.
71 See Government of Canada, Consultation Meetings on Digital Copyright Issues, at http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/SSG/rp00838e.html (last visited Oct. 12, 2002).
72 See Michael Geist, New Net Laws Reach Beyond Borders, Globe & Mail, June 27, 2002, at B17, available at http://www.globeandmail.com/servlet/ArticleNews/printarticle/gam/ 20020627/TWGEIS.
73 See id.
74 James Pearce, US Firm Puts Pressure on Overseas ISPs, ZDNet UK News, Jan. 14, 2003, at http://news.zdnet.co.uk/story/0,,t269-s2128644,00.html.
75 Id.
76 15 U.S.C. � 1125(d)(2)(C) (2000).
77 Id. � 1125(d)(2)(A)(ii); R. Polk Wagner & Catherine T. Struve, Realspace Sovereigns in Cyberspace: Problems with the Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act, 17 Berkeley Tech. L. J. 989, 992 (2002), available at http://www.law.upenn.edu/fac/pwagner/wagner-struve_ acpa.pdf.
78 15 U.S.C. � 1125(d)(2)(C). The provision stipulates that “[t]he owner of a mark may file an in rem civil action against a domain name in the judicial district in which the domain name registrar, domain name registry, or other domain name authority that registered or assigned the domain name is located.” Id.
79 See generally Wagner & Struve, supra note 77.
80 Heathmount A.E. Corp. v. Technodome.com, 106 F. Supp. 2d 860 (E.D. Va. 2000), motion to dismiss denied 2000 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 20316 (E.D. Va. 2000), appeal dismissed 2002 U.S. App. LEXIS 475 (4th Cir. 2002).
81 Electronic Frontier Foundation, NSI Opposes EFF in Case Seeking Fairness in Where Such Disputes are Heard, EFFector, Aug. 3, 2001, at http://www.eff.org/effector/HTML/effect14.17.html.
82 Heathmount, 106 F. Supp. 2d at 861.
83 Brief of Appellants at 1, Heathmount, No. 01-1153, 2002 U.S. App. LEXIS 475 (4th Cir. Jan. 10, 2002), available at http://www.eff.org/Cases/Heathmount_v_Technodome. com/20010329_appellant_brief.pdf.
84 See Press Release, Electronic Frontier Foundation, EFF Argues Website Case Unfair—A Domain’s Home Is Its Local Jurisdiction, Not in Virginia (Dec. 5, 2001), at http://www.eff.org/Cases/Heathmount_v_Technodome.com/20011205_eff_pr.html; see also Saskatoon Star Phoenix Group v. Noton, [2001] 206 Sask. R. 106; itravel2000.com Inc. v. Fagen, [2001] 197 D.L.R. (4th) 760; Sprint Communications Co. LP v. Merlin Int’l Communications Inc., [2000] 197 F.C. 44; Bell Actimedia Inc. v. Puzo, [1999] 166 F.C. 202.
85 Brief of Appellants at 6, 22, Heathmount, No. 01-1153, 2002 U.S. App. LEXIS 475 (4th Cir. Jan. 10, 2002), available at http://www.eff.org/Cases/Heathmount_v_Tech-nodome.com/20010329_appellant_brief.pdf.
86 Id. at 11.
87 Heathmount, 106 F. Supp. 2d. at 863.
88 Heathmount, 2002 U.S. App. LEXIS 475, at 20–22.
89 189 F. Supp. 2d. 367, 376 (E.D. Va. 2002).
90 Id.
91 162 F. Supp. 2d. 484, 492 (E.D. Va. 2001).
92 See id.
93 Globalsantafe Corp. v. Globalsantafe.com, No. Civ.A.01-1541-A, 2003 WL 261772, at*11–12 (E.D. Va. Feb. 5, 2003).
94 Id. at *1–2.
95 Id. at *1.
96 Id. at *10–11.
97 Id. at *1, *12.
98 15 U.S.C. �� 6501–6506 (2000).
99 Id. � 6502.
100 See Children’s Online Privacy Protection Rule, 16 C.F.R. � 312.5 (2003); see also 64 Fed. Reg. 59,888, 59,891–92 (Nov. 3, 1999).
101 See 16 C.F.R. � 312.2 (defining “operator”).
102 Article 29 Data Protection Working Party, Working Document on Determining the International Application of E.U. Data Protection Law to Personal Data Processing on the Internet by Non-E.U. Based Websites 2 (May 30, 2002) [hereinafter Article 29 Working Party], at http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/en/dataprot/wpdocs/wp56_en. pdf.
103 Id. at 15.
104 Id. at 4.
105 Id. at 10–13.
106 Id. at 11.
107 Article 29 Working Party, supra note 102, at 11.
108 Privacy Act, 1988, � 5B (Austl.), available at http://www.privacy.gov.au/publications /privacy88.pdf (last visited Jan. 28, 2003).
109 Id. � 5B(1)–(3).
110 Id. � 5B(1) (Note).
111 Id.
112 Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001 (“USA PATRIOT Act”), Pub. L. No. 107-56, 115 Stat. 272.
113 Id. � 814 (amending 18 U.S.C. � 1030 (2000 & West. Supp. 2002)).
114 Id. � 814(a) (amending 18 U.S.C. � 1030(e)(2)).
115 Id. � 814(d)(1) (amending 18 U.S.C. � 1030(e)(2)(B)).
116 Computer Misuse Act, 1998, Cap 50A, � 11 (Singapore), available at http://unpan1. un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/apcity/unpan002107.pdf.
117 Id. �� 3–8.
118 Id. � 11.
119 Computer Crimes Act, 1997, � 9 (Malaysia), available at http://www.mycert.mimos. my; Government of Malaysia, Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC), Malaysian Cyberlaws, at http://www.msc.com.my/mdc/infrastructure/cyberlaws.asp (last visited Mar. 24, 2003).
120 Computer Crimes Act, 1997, � 3, 4 (Malaysia).
121 Id. � 5.
122 Id. � 6.
123 Id. � 9.
124 Jane Wakefield, Man Accused of Love Bug Hack Goes Free, ZDNet UK News, Aug. 21, 2000, at http://news.zdnet.co.uk/story/0,,t269-s2080935,00.html.
125 Convention on Cybercrime, 109th Sess., ETS No. 185 (Nov. 23, 2002), at http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/185.htm.
126 Id. art. 11.
127 Interactive Gambling Act, 2001, �� 3, 14 (Austl.), available at http://scaleplus.law. gov.au/cgi-bin/download.pl?/scale/data/pasteact/3/3465.
128 Id. � 15(1).
129 Id. � 8.
130 Id. � 15(2).
131 Id. � 15(3), (4).
132 Interactive Gambling Act, 2001, � 14 (Austl.).
133 See Courtney Macavinta & Jeff Pelline, Virtual Casinos Bet Big, CNET News.com, July 11, 1997, at http://news.com.com/2009-1023-201333.html.
134 See Lessig, supra note 18, at 3–8.
135 See id. at 6–7.
136 See Consumer Broadband and Digital Television Promotion Act, S. 2048, 107th Cong. (Mar. 22, 2002); Declan McCullach, What Hollings’ Bill Would Do, Wired News, Mar. 22, 2002, at http://www.wired.com/news/politics/0,1283,51275,00.html; see also Declan McCullach, Tech Firms Fight Copy-Protection Laws, CNET News, Jan. 23, 2003, at http:// news.com.com/2100-1023-981882.html.
137 Consumer Broadband and Digital Television Promotion Act, S. 2048, 107th Cong. � 3(a) (Mar. 22, 2002).
138 See id. � 3(d).
139 Id. � 5.
140 Id. � 6.
141 Lawrence Lessig, The Future of Ideas: The Fate of the Commons in a Connected World 179–80 (2001).
142 See 17 U.S.C. �� 1201–1204 (2000).
143 See id.
144 See id.; Consumer Broadband and Digital Television Promotion Act, S. 2048, 107th Cong. �� 5, 6 (2002).
145 See 29 U.S.C. � 794d(a)(1)(A) (2000).
146 See id.
147 Electronic and Information Technology Accessibility Standards, 36 C.F.R. pt. 1194 (2002); see 29 U.S.C. � 794d.
148 See 36 C.F.R. � 1994. 22 (2003). The regulation includes the following technical specifications:
(a) A text equivalent for every non-text element shall be provided (e.g., via “alt”, “longdesc”, or in element content).
(b) Equivalent alternatives for any multimedia presentation shall be synchronized with the presentation.
(c) Web pages shall be designed so that all information conveyed with color is also available without color, for example from context or markup.
(d) Documents shall be organized so they are readable without requiring an associated style sheet.
(e) Redundant text links shall be provided for each active region of a server-side image map.
(f) Client-side image maps shall be provided instead of server-side image maps except where the regions cannot be defined with an available geometric shape.
(g) Row and column headers shall be identified for data tables.
(h) Markup shall be used to associate data cells and header cells for data tables that have two or more logical levels of row or column headers.
(i) Frames shall be titled with text that facilitates frame identification and navigation.
(j) Pages shall be designed to avoid causing the screen to flicker with a frequency greater than 2 Hz and lower than 55 Hz.
(k) A text-only page, with equivalent information or functionality, shall be provided to make a web site comply with the provisions of this part, when compliance cannot be accomplished in any other way. The content of the text-only page shall be updated whenever the primary page changes.
(l) When pages utilize scripting languages to display content, or to create interface elements, the information provided by the script shall be identified with functional text that can be read by assistive technology.
(m) When a web page requires that an applet, plug-in or other application be present on the client system to interpret page content, the page must provide a link to a plug-in or applet that complies with �1194.21(a) through (l).
(n) When electronic forms are designed to be completed on-line, the form shall allow people using assistive technology to access the information, field elements, and functionality required for completion and submission of the form, including all directions and cues.
(o) A method shall be provided that permits users to skip repetitive navigation links.
(p) When a timed response is required, the user shall be alerted and given sufficient time to indicate more time is required.
Id.
149 Data Protection Working Party, Recommendation 1/99 on Invisible and Automatic Processing of Personal Data on the Internet Performed by Software and Hardware (Feb. 23, 1999), at http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/en/dataprot/wpdocs/wp17 en.htm.
150 See id.
151 See supra notes 18–37, 134–143 and accompanying text.
152 Milton Mueller, ICANN and Internet Governance: Sorting through the Debris of ‘Self-Regulation’, 1 Info 497, 498, 500 (Dec. 1999), available at http://www.icannwatch.org/ar chive/muell.pdf.
153 Id. at 499.
154 Id. at 508–09; see M. Stuart Lynn, President’s Report: ICANN—The Case for Reform (Feb. 24, 2002), at http://www.icann.org/general/lynn-reform-proposal-24feb02.htm (last modified Feb. 27, 2002) (“ICANN’s assigned mission . . . [is] to create an effective private sector policy development process capable of administrative and policy management of the Internet’s naming and address allocation systems.”).
155 See Mueller, supra note 152, at 508–09.
156 See Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers, March 2000 ICANN Meeting in Cairo: At Large Membership and Elections, at http://www.icann.org/cairo 2000/atlarge-topic.htm (last modified Oct. 6, 2002).
157 See Lynn, supra note 154.
158 See Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers, The Internet Domain Name System and the Governmental Advisory Committee (GAC) of ICANN (Oct. 2001), at http://www.icann.org/committees/gac/outreach-en-01oct01.htm (last modified Mar. 24, 2002).
159 See Lynn, supra note 154.
160 See Declan McCullagh, Congress to Enter ICANN Fray, Wired News, Mar. 14, 2002, at http://www.wired.com/news/politics/0,1283,51041,00.html.
161 See Anick Jesdanun, ICANN Gets Another Year, Australian IT, Sept. 23, 2002, at http://australianit.news.com.au/articles/0,7204,5148890%5e16123%5e%5enbv%5e,00.html.
162 Reuters, Senate to Scruntize ICANN More Closely, Standard, Feb. 14, 2001, at http:// www.thestandard.com/article/display/0,1151,22210,00.html.
163 Id.
164 Presidency of the Council of European Union, Preparation of the Transport/Telecommunications Council on 17/18 June 2002—International Management of the Internet and ICANN Reform 5 (June 3, 2002), at http://register.consilium.eu.int/ pdf/en/02/st09/09526en2.pdf.
165 Hans Corell, Statement before WIPO Standing Committee on the Law of Trademarks, Industrial Designs and Geographical Indications, Second Special Session on the Report of the Second WIPO Internet Domain Name Process (May 21–24, 2002), Annex I, at 2–3, at http://www.dnso.org/clubpublic/council/Arc10/pdf00001.pdf.
166 Id. at 3.
167 International Telecommunications Union, Plenipotentiary Conference 2002 Highlights, Internet Names: A Matter for Both Government and Private Sector (Oct. 10, 2002) [hereinafter Conference 2000], at http://www.itu.int/newsroom/pp02/Highlights/1010. html. For information on the International Telecommunications Union (“ITU”), see http://www.itu.int (last visited Mar. 2003).
168 Conference 2000, supra note 167.
169 Dot Kids Implementation and Efficiency Act � 4, 47 U.S.C. � 941 (Lexis 2003).
170 Id.
171 While some countries, such as Germany and the United Kingdom, have allowed the private sector to manage the national domain name infrastructure without interference, other countries, such as China, India, and Finland have used the government as the direct manager with minimal, if any, public participation.
172 See Declan McCullach, Direct Marketers Want Anti-Spam Laws, CNet News.com, Oct. 21, 2001, at http://news.com.com/2100-1023-962821.html.
173 David Lazarus, Spam Indigestion Worsens, S.F. Chronicle, Oct. 9, 2002, at B1, available at http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2002/10/09/ BU243115.DTL.
174 See id.; see also Spam Laws: United States: State Laws: Summary, SpamLaws.com, at http://www.spamlaws.com/state/summary.html (last visited Jan. 31, 2003).
175 Christopher Saunders, Japan Takes Anti-Spam Steps, InternetNews.com, July 11, 2002, at http://www.internetnews.com/IAR/article.php/1402331.
176 Yang Sung-jin, Powerful Web Site Blocking Spam, Korea Herald, Aug. 22, 2002, available at http://www.koreaherald.com/SITE/data/html_dir/2002/08/22/200208220054. asp.
177 Reuters, EU Sticking to Tough Spam Law, Wired News, Dec. 6, 2001, at http://www. wired.com/news/politics/0,1283,48894,00.html.
178 Industry Canada, Electronic Commerce Policy, Consumer Protection, Internet and Bulk Unsolicited Electronic Mail (SPAM), Conclusion, at http://e-com.ic.gc.ca/english/ links/spam.html (last modified Jan. 22, 2003).
179 Consumer Protection Act, C.C.S.M, ch. C200, �� 121–35 (2003) (Manitoba, Can.), available at http://web2.gov.mb.ca/laws/statutes/ccsm/c200e.php (unofficial version). The Consumer Protection Act was substantially amended to address Internet agreements by the Electronic Commerce and Information Act, Consumer Protection Amendment and Manitoba Evidence Amendment Act, S.M., ch. 32, �� 32–36 (2000) (Manitoba, Can.), available at http://web2.gov.mb.ca/laws/statutes/2000/c03200e.php#36 (unofficial version).
For an overview of Manitoba’s consumer protection on the Internet, see Bradley J. Freedman, Electronic Contracts Under Canadian Law—A Practical Guide, 28 Manitoba L.J. 48–51, available at http://www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/law/Journal/back_issues/articles/ 28_1_freedman.pdf.
180 Consumer Protection Act, C.C.S.M, ch. C200, � 129(1), 129(2).
181 Id. � 129(1) (“Buyer may cancel if not provided information”), (2) (“Electronic methods of providing information”).
182 Id. � 130(1) (“Buyer may cancel for failure to deliver”), (2) (“Attempted Delivery”).
183 Id. � 134(1) (“Buyer’s recourse re credit card charges”), (2) (“Credit card issuer must reverse or cancel charges”).
184 Id. � 134(1), (2).
185 Consumer Protection Act, C.C.S.M, ch. C200, � 134(3) (“Application: This section applies despite any agreement to the contrary entered into before or after this Part comes into force.”).
186 News Release, Ontario Ministry of Consumer and Business Services, Ernie Eves Government Introduces Bill to Improve Consumer Protection (Sept. 26, 2002), at http:// www.cbs.gov.on.ca/mcbs/english/5ECQ4C.htm.
187 See Council Directive 2000/31 of 8 June 2000 on Electronic Commerce, 2000 O.J. (L 178), available at http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2000/l_178/l_17820000 717en00010016.pdf.
188 See Council Directive 97/7 of 20 May 1997 on the Protection of Consumers in Respect of Distance Contracts, 1997 O.J. (L 144), available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/ consumers/policy/developments/dist_sell/dist01_en.pdf.
189 E.g., John Markoff, Auction Sites in Japan Fear Move to Limit Online Sales, NYTimes.com, Feb. 6, 2002, at http://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/06/technology/06AUCT. html.
190 E.g., Police Consider Legal Action on Internet Dating Sites, Japan Today, Oct. 3, 2002, at http://www.japantoday.com/e/?content=news&cat=2&id=232828.
191 E.g., Paul Kanoho, Restrictions on Alcohol Sales on the Internet: Issues of Safety and Freedom, Internet L. Journal.com, Apr. 16, 2001, at http://www.tilj.com/content/ecomhead-line04140102.htm.
192 E.g., Linda Rosencrance, Automakers Sue Arizona Over Online Car Sales, Computerworld, July 13, 2000, at http://www.computerworld.com/managementtopics/ebusiness/ story/0,10801,47090,00.html.
193 E.g., Todd R. Weiss, Judge Overturns NY Law Banning Online Cigarette Sales, Computerworld, June 8, 2001, at http://www.computerworld.com/managementtopics/ ebusiness/story/0,10801,61255,00.html.
194 Michael Liedtke, PayPal Warns its Service is About to Shut Down in Louisiana, Casting Cloud over IPO, Naples Daily News, Feb. 12, 2002, available at http://www.naplesnews. com/02/02/business/d745055a.htm.
195 Press Release, Office of New York State Attorney General Eliot Spitzer, Financial Giant Joins Fight Against Online Gambling (June 14, 2002) (outlining agreement in which leading credit card issuer Citibank agreed to block key Internet transactions), at http://www.oag.state.ny.us/press/2002/jun/jun14a_02.html.
196 See supra text accompanying notes 36–37.