1 See Daren Bakst, Race-targeted Financial Aid: Untangling the Legal Web, Student Aid Transcript, Winter 2000, at 4.
2 See id.; see generally Nat’l Assoc. of College Admissions Counselors, at http://www. nacac.com; Nat’l Assoc. of Student Financial Aid Administrators, at http://www.nasfaa.org (representing two distinct groups of professionals in the higher education community).
3 See Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title VI, 42 U.S.C. � 2000d (1998).
4 See Regents of the Univ. of Cal. v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265, 287 (1978) (Powell, J., plurality opinion).
5 See 42 U.S.C. � 2000d-4a; Gus Douvanis, Is There a Future for Race-Based Scholarships?, C. Board Rev., Fall 1998, at 22. Even though the case law and discussion focus on public schools, it should be noted that Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 applies to all private colleges and universities that receive federal funds. See Douvanis, supra, at 21.
6 See Gratz v. Bollinger, 122 F. Supp. 2d 811, 818 n.6 (E.D. Mich. 2000).
7 See 438 U.S. at 271–72.
8 See id. at 320.
9 See Podberesky v. Kirwan, 38 F.3d 147 (4th Cir. 1994) (Podberesky II).
10 See Kirk A. Kennedy, Race-Exclusive Scholarships: Constitutional Vel Non, 30 Wake Forest L. Rev. 759, 771 (1995).
11 See id. at 771.
12 See id. at 771–72.
13 See id. at 779.
14 See William E. Thro, The Constitutional Problem of Race-Based Scholarships and a Practical Solution, 111 Educ. L. Rep. 625, 633 (1996).
15 See id.
16 See id.
17 See id.
18 See id. at 633–34.
19 See Brian K. Landsberg, Balanced Scholarship and Racial Balance, 30 Wake Forest L. Rev. 819, 821–22 (1995).
20 See infra notes 24–77 and accompanying text.
21 See infra notes 78–127 and accompanying text.
22 See infra notes 128–168 and accompanying text.
23 See infra notes 169–213 and accompanying text.
24 See, e.g., Regents of the Univ. of Cal. v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265 (1978); Gratz v. Bollinger, 122 F. Supp. 2d 811 (E.D. Mich. 2000).
25 See 438 U.S. at 271–72.
26 See id. at 275.
27 See id.
28 See id. at 274.
29 See id. at 307.
30 See Bakke, 438 U.S. at 326 (Brennan, White, Marshall, & Blackmun, JJ., concurring in part).
31 See id.
32 See id. at 320.
33 See 488 U.S. 469, 476 (1989).
34 See id. at 511. The city of Richmond required contractors who were awarded a city construction contract to subcontract 30% of the amount to at least one Minority Business Enterprise. See id. at 477–78. The set-aside plan did not apply to minority owned contractors who were awarded city contracts. See id. Minority group members were defined as U.S. citizens who are Black, Spanish-speaking, Orientals, Indians, Eskimos or Aleuts. See id.
35 See Croson, 488 U.S. at 499.
36 See id.
37 See id. at 507.
38 See id.
39 See id.
40 See Croson, 488 U.S. at 506 (such as Aleuts, a native Alaskan ethnicity).
41 See id. at 505.
42 See, e.g., Hopwood v. Texas, 78 F.3d 932 (5th Cir. 1996) (Hopwood II); Johnson v. Board of Regents, 106 F. Supp. 2d 1362 (S.D. Ga. 2000).
43 See 78 F.3d at 962. In Hopwood I, the court affirmed the district court’s denial of intervention sought by several minority groups. See Hopwood v. Texas, 21 F.3d 603, 606 (5th Cir. 1994).
44 See Hopwood II, 78 F.3d at 944.
45 See id. at 962.
46 See id. at 944.
47 See id. at 944-45.
48 See id. at 945-46. Following Hopwood II, the Fifth Circuit, over the dissent of the Chief Judge, and six Circuit Judges, denied an en banc rehearing. See Hopwood v. Texas, 84 F.3d 720 (5th Cir. 1996). The dissenters argued that the panel opinion in Hopwood II went out of its way to break ground that the Supreme Court itself had been careful to avoid and overruled Bakke. See id. at 721-23. The dissenters rejected the panel’s decision not to treat Justice Powell’s decision in Bakke as precedent. See id. The Supreme Court denied certiorari, stating that since the university had long since discontinued the contested admissions policy the issue was moot. See Texas v. Hopwood, 518 U.S. 1033 (1996).
49 See 106 F. Supp. 2d. at 1375. The University of Georgia system was a three-layered indexing point system that awarded 0.5 racial points for non-whites and 0.25 gender points for males during the second layer of the system. See id. at 1365.
50 See id. at 1369, 1375.
51 See 233 F.3d 1188, 1200–01 (9th Cir. 2000).
52 See id. at 1196.
53 See id. at 1200.
54 See id.
55 See id. at 1201.
56 See 122 F. Supp. 2d at 820.
57 See id. at 816; see also Patricia Gurin, Expert Report for University of Michigan, Gratz v. Bollinger, (No. 97–75321), Grutter v. Bollinger, (No. 97–75928), at Summary and Conclusions 2, available at http://www.umich.edu/~urel/admissions/legal/expert/summ.html (expert reports on the value of diversity) (last visited Sept. 14, 2001); Thomas J. Surge, Expert Report for University of Michigan, Gratz v. Bollinger, (No. 97–75321), Grutter v. Bollinger, (No. 97–75928), at XIII Conclusion 1, available at http://www.umich.edu/~urel/admissions/legal/ expert/sugru13.html (last visited Sept. 14, 2001).
58 See id. at 816 n.5; see also Gerald R. Ford, Editorial, Inclusive America, Under Attack, N.Y. Times, Aug. 8, 1999.
59 See Gratz, 122 F. Supp. 2d at 819.
60 See id. at 821 n.10.
61 See id. at 821.
62 See id. at 831.
63 See 236 F.3d 256, 276–77, 282 (5th Cir. 2000) (Hopwood III).
64 See id. at 282.
65 See id. at 260, 273.
66 See id.
67 See id. at 274.
68 See Hopwood III, 236 F.3d at 274.
69 See id.
70 See id.
71 See id.
72 See id. at 275 n.66.
73 See Hopwood III, 236 F.3d at 276.
74 See id.
75 See id. at 276–77.
76 See Grutter v. Bollinger, 137 F. Supp. 2d 821, 872 (E.D. Mich. 2001).
77 See id. at 847–50.
78 See Kennedy, supra note 10, at 779.
79 See id. at 779, 780–81.
80 See Elizabeth Shogren, In U.S. Reversal, Minority-Based Scholarships OK, L.A. Times, Feb. 18, 1994, at A1.
81 See id.; B. Denise Hawkins, Michael Williams: Angst, Confusion over Race-Based Scholarships Unfounded, Black Issues in Higher Educ., Feb. 23, 1995, at 16.
82 See Report to Congressional Requesters, U.S. General Accounting Office, GAO/HEHS-94–77, Higher Education Information on Minority-Targeted Scholarships 1 (1994) [hereinafter Minority-Targeted Scholarships]; Wendy Brown-Scott, Unpacking the Affirmative Action Rhetoric, 30 Wake Forest L. Rev. 801, 815–16 (1995).
83 See Minority-Targeted Scholarships, supra note 82, at 4.
84 See Nondiscrimination in Federally Assisted Programs; Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 59 Fed. Reg. 8756 (Dep’t. Educ. Feb. 23, 1994).
85 See id. at 8756–57.
86 See id. at 8757.
87 See id.
88 See id.
89 See Focus on Financial Aid: Words To Know, Steps to College, (Jan./Feb. 2001), available at http://www.nacac.com/p&s_steps.html [hereinafter Words].
90 See Podberesky v. Kirwan, 38 F.3d 147, 151 (4th Cir. 1994) (Podberesky II).
91 See id. at 161.
92 See id. at 152.
93 See Anne Wells & John L. Strope, Jr., The Podberesky Case and Race-Based Financial Aid, J. of Student Fin. Aid, Winter 1996, at 35.
94 See id. at 34.
95 See Podberesky II, 38 F.3d at 151.
96 See id. at 153.
97 See id.
98 See id. at 152.
99 See id.
100 See Podberesky II, 38 F.3d at 155.
101 See id. at 160.
102 See id. at 158.
103 See id. at 159.
104 See Scott Jaschik, Minority Scholarships in a New Light, Chron. of Higher Educ., Nov. 9, 1994, at A30.
105 See Paulette V. Walker, Avoid Race-Based Scholarships, Colorado Official Advises Colleges, Chron. of Higher Educ., Jan. 5, 1996, at A34.
106 See Jeffrey Selingo & Stephen Burd, Texas Attorney General Rescinds Opinion Barring Race-Exclusive Scholarships, Chron. of Higher Educ., Sept. 17, 1999, at A44.
107 See Peter Schmidt, Univ. of Cal. Regents Will Discuss Idea of Ending Minority Scholarships, Chron. of Higher Educ., May 17, 1996, at A36; Kim Strosnider, Oregon Agrees to Change Its Program of Tuition Waivers for Minority Students, Chron. of Higher Educ., Jun. 20, 1997, at A32.
108 See UW Announces Proposal for Minority Scholarship, News Tribune (Tacoma, Wa.), Oct. 23, 2000, at B2 [hereinafter UW].
109 See id.
110 See id.
111 See Dave Murray, W. Michigan Colleges Eye Impact of U-M Ruling, Grand Rapids Press (Michigan), Dec. 14, 2000, at A21.
112 See id.
113 See Joan Morgan, Colleges Say They’ll Stay the Minority Scholarship Course, Black Issues in Higher Educ., Nov. 17, 1994, at 14.
114 See Scott Jaschik, “No” on Black Scholarships, Supreme Court Won’t Second Guess Ruling Against Race-Exclusive Awards, Chron. of Higher Educ., June 2, 1995, at A25.
115 See Ben Gose, A ‘First’ for Scholarships, Chron. of Higher Educ., Feb. 24, 1995, at A37.
116 See id.
117 See Letter from Judith A. Winston, U.S. Department of Education General Counsel, to College and University Counsel, available at http://www.ed.gov/offices/OCR/docs/ dearcol.html (July 30, 1996).
118 See id.
119 See Charles Dervarics, College Ends Race-Based Scholarship at Behest of Education Department, Black Issues in Higher Educ., Nov. 13, 1997, at 16.
120 See Elizabeth Frengel, Using Race-Based Scholarships to Promote Campus Diversity, Community C.J., Dec. 1998/Jan. 1999, at 21.
121 See Dervarics, supra note 119, at 16.
122 See id. at 17.
123 See id. at 16.
124 See id.
125 See Frengel, supra note 120, at 21.
126 See Policy Endorsement by Colleges & Universities, On The Importance of Diversity, Chron. of Higher Educ., Feb. 13, 1998, available at http://www.umich.edu/~urel/ad-missions/support/statemnt.html (last visited Sept. 14, 2001) [hereinafter Policy Endorsement].
127 See Jaschik, supra note 104, at A30.
128 Irvin W. Bodofsky, That Was Then; This Is Now: What Has Changed in Student Financial Aid?, Student Aid Transcript, Winter 2000, at 19.
129 See Report to Congressional Requesters, U.S. General Accounting Office, GAO/HEHS-96–154, Higher Education Tuition Increasing Faster Than Household Income and Public Colleges’ Costs 61 (1996) [hereinafter Costs].
130 See id.
131 See id. at 6.
132 See id.
133 See id. at 5.
134 See Costs, supra note 129, at 33.
135 See id.
136 See William C. Nelsen, Student Aid From the Private Sector: Dramatic Increases Are Possible, Chron. of Higher Educ., Oct. 22, 1999, at B4.
137 See Nat’l Center for Educ. Statistics, NCES 2000–01, Digest of Education Statistics, 1999 Table 322 (2000) [hereinafter Education].
138 See id.
139 See id. For white, non-Hispanic, $3,848, for black, non-Hispanic, $3,739, for Hispanic, $3,328, for Asian American/Pacific Islander, $5,200, and for American Indian/Alaskan Native students, $3,792. See id.
140 See Costs, supra note 129, at 33.
141 See Nelsen, supra note 136, at B4.
142 See id.
143 See Education, supra note 137, at Table 328.
144 See id.
145 See id.
146 See Nelsen, supra note 136, at B4.
147 See Thro, supra note 14, at 626.
148 See id.
149 See id. at 626–27.
150 See id. at 627.
151 See id.
152 See Thro, supra note 14, at 627.
153 See id.
154 See Dervarics, supra note 119, at 16.
155 See, e.g., Douvanis, supra note 5, at 22; Thro, supra note 14, at 627.
156 See Thro, supra note 14, at 627–28.
157 See Jaschik, supra note 104, at A30; The Politics of Wealth and Inequality 73 (Richard Ratcliff et al. eds., 1995) [hereinafter Politics].
158 See Politics, supra note 157, at 73.
159 See Education, supra note 137, at Table 30.
160 See id. at Table 348.
161 See Costs, supra note 129, at 5.
162 See Nelsen, supra note 136, at B4.
163 See Peter Schmidt, How Michigan Won Corporate Backing for Its Defense of Affirmative Action, Chron. of Higher Educ., Nov. 24, 2000, at A21.
164 See id.; Grutter v. Bollinger, 137 F. Supp. 2d 821, 872 (E.D. Mich. 2001); Gratz v. Bollinger, 122 F. Supp. 811 (E.D. Mich. 2000).
165 See Gratz, 122 F. Supp. 2d at 813.
166 See Schmidt, supra note 163, at A21.
167 See id.
168 See id.
169 See Jaschik, supra note 104, at A30.
170 See id.
171 See Podberesky v. Kirwan, 38 F.3d 147, 151 (4th Cir. 1996) (emphasis added) (Podberesky II).
172 See Wells & Strope, supra note 93, at 34.
173 See Podberesky II, 38 F.3d at 151; Podberesky v. Kirwan, 956 F.2d 52, 54 n.1 (4th Cir. 1992) (Podberesky I).
174 See Podberesky II, 38 F.3d at 151; Podberesky I, 956 F.2d at 54 n.1.
175 See Dervarics, supra note 119, at 16.
176 See id. at 17.
177 See Podberesky II, 38 F.3d at 151.
178 See id.
179 See UW, supra note 108, at B2. But see Douvanis, supra note 5, at 30; Thro, supra note 14, at 627.
180 See Frengel, supra note 120, at 19.
181 See id. at 22.
182 See Thro, supra note 14, at 635.
183 See Brown-Scott, supra note 82, at 815.
184 See Thro, supra note 14, at 633–34.
185 See id. at 627.
186 See Education, supra note 137, at Table 321.
187 See Civil Rights Act of 1964 Title VI, 42 U.S.C. � 2000d; Focus on Financial Aid: Myths & Misconceptions, Steps to College (Jan./Feb. 2001) available at http://www.nacac.com/ p&s_steps.html (last visited Sept. 14, 2001) [hereinafter Myths].
188 See Words, supra note 89.
189 See Bodofsky, supra note 128, at 19.
190 See Focus on Financial Aid: The Basics, Steps to College (Jan./Feb. 2001) available at http://www.nacac.com/p&s_steps.html (last visited Sept. 14, 2001).
191 See Nelsen, supra note 136, at B4.
192 See id.
193 See Myths, supra note 187.
194 See Bodofsky, supra note 128, at 21.
195 See Regents of the Univ. of Cal. v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265, 305 (1978); Words, supra note 89.
196 See Frengel, supra note 120, at 22.
197 See Policy Endorsement, supra note 126.
198 See Surge, supra note 57, at XIII Conclusion 1.
199 See Gurin, supra note 57, at Summary and Conclusions 2.
200 See id.
201 See id.
202 See id.
203 See Brown-Scott, supra note 82, at 815.
204 See Education, supra note 137, at Table 348.
205 See Ford, supra note 58.
206 See id.
207 See id.; Frengel, supra note 120, at 22.
208 See Frengel, supra note 120, at 22.
209 See id.
210 See Schmidt, supra note 163, at A21; Policy Endorsement, supra note 126.
211 See Gratz v. Bollinger, 122 F. Supp. 811, 823–24 (E.D. Mich. 2000).
212 See id. at 824.
213 See UW, supra note 108, at 633.