* Erik Barrios is an Articles Editor of the Boston College International & Comparative Law Review.
1 See generally Alfred P. Rubin, The Law of Piracy 8 (Naval War College Press 1988) (discussing the ancient Roman belief in the “impropriety” of piracy and the threat that piracy might pose to the “new commercial and political order that could not countenance interference with trade in the Mediterranean Sea”).
2 See Delphine Soulas, Poverty Stirs Turbulence in Asian Waters; Attacks on Ships Triple Since ’93, Wash. Times, Oct. 10, 2003, at A17, at 2003 WL 7720673.
3 See Annual Digest of Public International Law Cases: Years 1919–1922, at 165 (Sir John Fisher Williams & H. Lauterpacht eds., 1932); Paul Arnel, International Criminal Law and Universal Jurisdiction, 11 Int’l Legal Persp. 53, 60 (1999).
4 See generally Peter Chalk, “Threats to the Maritime Environment: Piracy and Terrorism” Presentation at the RAND Stakeholder Consultation (Oct. 28–30, 2002) (noting the marked increase in piracy since the end of the Cold War, particularly in Southeast Asia); Pirates In Asia a Growing Threat to Global Trade, Heritage Foundation, June 23, 2000, at http://
www.heritage.org/Press/NewsReleases/NR062300.cfm (last visited Nov. 20, 2004) (describing attacks to commercial shipping in Southeast Asia); Sonia Kolesnikov, Piracy Still Rising, United Press Int’l, Apr. 20, 2002, available at LEXIS, News Library (reporting on the continuing rise in the incidents of piracy in Southeast Asia).
5 See Ger Teitler, Piracy in Southeast Asia: A Historical Comparison, 1 Mast 1, 72 (2002), available at http://www.marecentre.nl/mast/documents/GerTeitler.pdf (last visited Nov. 20, 2004).
6 Dana Robert Dillon, Piracy in Asia: A Growing Barrier to Maritime Trade, Heritage Foundation, Heritage Foundation, June 22, 2000, at http://www.heritage.org/Research/Asia
andthePacific/BG1379.cfm (last visited Nov. 20, 2004).
7 See, e.g., International Maritime Organization, Reports on Acts of Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships: Annual Report 2002, MSC.4/Circ. 32, April 17, 2003, at http://www.imo.org/includes/blastDataOnly.asp/data_id%3D7215/32-b&w.pdf (last visited Nov. 20, 2004).
8 See Heritage Foundation, supra note 4.
9 See id.
10 John J. Brandon, Piracy as Terrorism, J. Com., June 3, 2003, at http://www.uscib.org/
index.asp?documentID=2153 (last visited Nov. 20, 2004).
11 See Richard Halloran, What if Asia’s Pirates and Terrorists Joined Hands?, South China Morning Post (Hong Kong), May 17, 2003, available at http://www.uscib.org/index.asp
?documentID=2636 (last visited Nov. 20, 2004); See also Is Terrorism Heading for the High Seas?, Yomiuri Shimbun/Daily Yomiuri, October 6, 2003, A11, at 2003 WL 5140196.
12 See James Gomez, September 11: Asian Perspectives, 13 Ind. Int’l Comp. L. Rev. 705, 707 (2003).
13 See Halloran, supra note 11; Yomiuri, supra note 11.
14 New Brand of Piracy Threatens Oil Tankers in Malacca Straits, Icc Commercial Crime Services, Sept. 2, 2003, at http://www.iccwbo.org/ccs/news_archives/2003/piracy_ms.asp (last visited Nov. 20, 2004) [hereinafter New Brand of Piracy].
15 Graham Gerard Ong, Pre-empting Maritime Terrorism in Southeast Asia, Inst. of South East Asian Studies Viewpoints, Nov. 29, 2002, at www.iseas.edu.sg/viewpoint/ggonov02.
pdf (last visited Nov. 20, 2004).
16 See Peril on the Sea, Economist, Oct. 4, 2003, at 5; Adam J. Young & Mark J. Valencia, Conflation of Piracy and Terrorism in Southeast Asia: Rectitude & Utility, 25 Contemp. Southeast Asia 1, 32 (2003), at 2003 WL 5140196; Yomiuri, supra note 11 (discussing a tanker carrying liquefied petroleum gas as the “likeliest terrorist target”).
17 See Yomiuri, supra note 11 (describing anxieties about terrorists using container ships to smuggle people and explosives around the world).
18 Id.
19 See id.
20 See, e.g., Tina Garmon, International Law of the Sea: Reconciling the Law of Piracy and Terrorism in the Wake of September 11, 27 Tul. Mar. L.J. 257, 259 (2002) (noting that reconcililing notions of piracy and terrorism under the law of the sea is inevitible as maritime violence and threats of terrorism increase).
21 Id. at 259–60.
22 See id.
23 Williams & Lauterpacht, supra note 3, at 165.
24 See id.
25 See Convention on the High Seas, Apr. 29 1958, art. 15, 450 U.N.T.S. 11, available at http://www.un.org/law/ilc/texts/hseas.htm (last visited Nov. 20, 2004) [hereinafter High Seas Convention]; Garmon, supra note 20, at 259–63 (discussing the varied applications of piracy law under customary international law and the eventual adoption of the Convention on the High Seas which sought to provide a standard definition of piracy).
26 See High Seas Convention, supra note 25, art. 15; United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Dec. 10, 1982, art. 101, 1833 U.N.T.S. 3, 436 [hereinafter UNCLOS].
27 UNCLOS, supra note 26, art. 101.
28 Garmon, supra note 20, at 265.
29 See id.
30 See UN Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, Chronological Lists of Ratifications of, accessions and successions to the Convention as at 1 Nov. 2004, at http://www.un.org/Depts/los/reference_files/chronological_lists_of_rati
fications.htm (last visited Nov. 20, 2004).
31 See Garmon, supra note 20, at 275 (suggesting that the law contained in UNCLOS would apply to non-signatories as well).
32 See id. at 271–72; Malvina Halberstam, Terrorism on the High Seas: The Achille Lauro, Piracy and the IMO Convention on Maritime Safety, 82 Am. J. Int’l. L. 269, 285 (1998).
33 Halberstam, supra note 32, at 269.
34 See, e.g., UNCLOS, supra note 26, art. 101.
35 See id.
36 See Halberstam, supra note 32, at 295.
37 Convention on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, Mar. 10, 1988, art. 3, 1678 U.N.T.S. 221, at http://www.unodc.org/unodc/
terrorism_convention_maritime_navigation.html (last visited Nov. 20, 2004) [hereinafter Rome Convention].
38 Id. arts. 6, 10(1); Halberstam, supra note 32, at 295–96.
39 See Rome Convention, supra note 37, art. 6.
40 See id.
41 See International Maritime Organization, Status of Conventions, at http://
www.imo.org/includes/blastDataOnly.asp/data_id%3D8068/status.xls (last visited Nov. 20, 2004) [hereinafter Status of Conventions].
42 See Garmon, supra note 20, at 271.
43 See, e.g., id. at 267 (noting how the UNCLOS definition is restricted to priacy taking place on the high seas and most incidents of piracy occur within territorial or port waters).
44 See UNCLOS, supra note 26, art. 101.
45 See International Maritime Organization, supra note 7, annex 2.
46 Garmon, supra note 20, at 264; see UNCLOS, supra note 26, art. 101.
47 See UNCLOS, supra note 26, art. 111.
48 Id.
49 Id.
50 See Zou Keyuan, Enforcing the Law of Piracy in the South China Sea, 31 J. Mar. L. & Com. 107, 111 (2000) (stating that most, if not all, of the South China Sea is located within the exclusive economic zone of one country or another).
51 See id.
52 See Garmon, supra note 20, at 265.
53 See id.
54 See id.; Economist, supra note 16, at 5.
55 See Halberstam, supra note 32, at 287 (noting how a perpetrator of maritime violence could be caught on the high seas, have the motivation found to be for “private ends,” yet still fail to qualify as a pirate because he did not act from one ship against another”).
56 See UNCLOS, supra note 26, art. 101.
57 See Halberstam, supra note 32, at 286–87.
58 See Zou Keyuan, Part V: Piracy, Ship Hijacking and Armed Robbery in the Straits, 3 Sing. J. Int’l. & Comp. L. 524, 532 (1999).
59 See id; Rome Convention, supra note 37, at art. 3.
60 See Keyuan, supra note 58, at 532; Status of Conventions, supra note 41.
61 See Young & Valencia, supra note 16 at 32.
62 See id.
63 See Keyuan, supra note 58, at 532.
64 See Garmon, supra note 20, at 272–73.
65 See id.
66 See id.
67 See id.; Rome Convention, supra note 37, art. 6.
68 Garmon, supra note 20, at 273.
69See Rome Convention, supra note 37, art. 16 (providing a forum for dispute resolution between parties regarding issues arising out of the interpretation or application of the Convention, but providing no specific sanctions).
70 Garmon, supra note 20, at 273.
71 Id. at 275.
72 See id.
73 See Garmon, supra note 20, at 275; Timothy H. Goodman, “Leaving the Corsair’s Name to Other Times:” How to Enforce the Law of Sea Piracy in the 21st Century Through Regional International Agreements, 31 Case. W. Res. J. Int’l. L. 139, 158 (1999).
74 See Garmon supra note 20, at 275.
75 See id.
76 See Status of Conventions, supra note 41.
77 See id; Garmon, supra note 20, at 275.
78 See Garmon, supra note 20, at 275.
79 See Goodman, supra note 73, at 156–57.
80 See id. at 157–58.
81 See id. at 159–60.
82 Id. at 158.
83 See id. at 156–57.
84 Goodman, supra note 73, at 156–57.
85 See Phillip Day, Security in a Straitjacket?: Why It’s So Hard to Make a Key Asian Waterway Safe from Terror, Wall St. J., June 13, 2002, at A5, available at 2003 WL-WSJ 3970564.
86 Id.
87 See Young & Valencia, supra note 16, at 32, 38–39.
88 Day, supra note 85 (quoting Pootengal Mukundan, Director of the International Maritime Bureau).
89 See Young & Valencia, supra note 16, at 38.
90 See id. at 38–39 (describing the “hands off” policy underlying a joint patrol agreement between Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore).
91 See Association of Southeast Asian Nations, ARF Statement on Cooperation Against Piracy and Other Threats to Maritime Security, at www.aseansec.org/
14837.htm (last visited Nov. 20, 2004).
92 See Asia to Roll out Anti-Piracy Pact, October, Borneo Bull., Nov. 19, 2004, at http://www.brunet.bn/news/bb/fri/nov19w4.htm (last visited Nov. 20, 2004); Asian Countries to Sign Anti-Piracy Pact in October, Asia Pulse, September 22, 2003, at 2003 WL 64286644.
93 See generally Garmon, supra note 20, at 273 (discussing broadening the definition of piracy); Goodman, supra note 73, at 156-57 (discussing regional piracy charters and accords); Halberstam, supra note 32, at 272-76 (discussing the customary international law of piracy).
94 See Garmon, supra note 20, at 267.
95 See id.
96 See id.
97 See, e.g., Halberstam, supra note 32, at 272–73.
98 Rubin, supra note 1, at 321.
99 See Halberstam, supra note 32, at 273–74.
100 See Rubin, supra note 1, at 307.
101 Id. at xiii.
102 See Halberstam, supra note 32, at 273 (citing In Re Piracy Jure Gentium, 1934 App. Cas. 586, 598, reprinted in 3 Brit. Int’l L. Cases 836, 842 (1965)).
103 Id. at 273–74.
104 Id. (citing United States v. Brig Malek Adhel, 43 U.S. (2 How.) 210, 232 (1844)).
105 See Halberstam, supra note 32, at 280 (discussing the conclusion of the Nyon agreement of 1937); Rubin, supra note 1, at 295.
106 See Halberstam, supra note 32, at 273.
107 See generally id. (arguing that piracy has historically been seen as any act of violence, committed at sea or close to the sea, by persons not acting under proper authority).
108 See Halberstam, supra note 32, at 283; Samuel Pyeatt Menefee, Anti Piracy Law in the Year of the Ocean, Problems and Opportunity, 5 ILSA J. Int’l & Comp. L. 309, 313–14 (1999); Rubin, supra note 1, at 322 (discussing the new, narrow definition of piracy as de lege ferenda).
109 See id.
110 See Halberstam, supra note 32, at 283; Menefee, supra note 108, at 313–14; Rubin, supra note 1, at 322.
111 See Rubin, supra note 1, at 322.
112 See id.
113 See Halberstam, supra note 32, at 273.
114 See id.
115 See Garmon, supra note 20, at 273.
116 See id. at 273.
117 See Young & Valencia, supra note 16, at 43.