CONTROL OF HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTION

* (c) Arnold W. Reitze, Jr. 2000. J.B. and Maurice C. Shapiro Professor of Environmental Law, George Washington University Law School; J.D. 1962, Rutgers University; M.P.H. 1985, Johns Hopkins University; B.A. 1960, Fairleigh Dickinson University, Special Consulting Counsel with the law firm of LeBoeuf, Lamb, Greene & MacRae, Washington, D.C.
** Randy Lowell was the Randolph C. Shaw Fellow while earning an LL.M. in Environmental Law at George Washington University. He received his J.D. and M.P.A. degrees from the University of South Carolina and a B.A. from the College of Charleston. He is an associate with the Columbia, South Carolina office of Willoughby & Hoefer, P.A.
1 See List of Regulated Substances and Thresholds for Accidental Release Prevention: Requirements for Petitions Under Section 112(r) of the CAA as Amended, 59 Fed. Reg. 4478, 4478 (Jan. 31, 1994) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 68).
2 See id.
3 Pub. L. No. 101-549, 104 Stat. 2399 (1990) (codified in various parts of 42 U.S.C. �� 7401–-7671(q)).
4 Id. �� 301–330, 42 U.S.C. �� 11001–11050 (1994).
5 EPCRA � 313(c).
6 Id. � 313(c)-(e). See generally Fertilizer Inst. v. Browner, 163 F.3d 774 (3d Cir. 1998).
7 EPCRA � 313(a).
8 Id. � 313(f)(l)(B)(iii). See generally Arnold W. Reitze, Jr. & Steven D. Schell, Reporting Requirements for Non-Routine Hazardous Pollutant Releases Under Federal Environmental Laws, 5 Envtl. Law. 1 (1998).
9 Council on Environmental Quality, Environmental Quality the World Wide Web 308, tbl. 8.6 (1997).
10 Federal facilities were made subject to EPCRA’s TRI reporting requirements by Executive Order. See Exec. Order No. 12,856, 58 Fed. Reg. 41,981, 41,981 (Aug. 3, 1993).
11 See generally SUBCOMM. ON HEALTH AND THE ENV’T COMM. ON ENERGY AND COMMERCE, S. Rep. No. 101-228, THE NATIONAL TOXIC RELEASE INVENTORY, (1989); see generally Report of the Comm. on Env’t and Pub. Works, S. Rep. No. 101-228, CAA Amendments of 1989 to accompany S. 1630, 127–47 (1989).
12 See generally Arnold W. Reitze, Jr., Air Pollution Law (1995).
13 U.S. EPA, 1997 Toxics Release Inventory Public Data Release Report 2–11 (1997), available at http://www.epa.gov/triinter/tri97/pdr/index.htm (last visited Aug. 22, 2000) [hereinafter TRI].
14 EPCRA � 313, 42 U.S.C. � 11023(a), (g) (1994).
15 1995 TRI Data Show Waste Increase While Total Emission Figures Decline, Daily Env’t Rep. (BNA) A-11 (May 21, 1997).
16 TRI, supra note 13 , at 2–11.
17 Id. at 1–9. Since 1997, facilities that are required to file TRI reports but that have reportable amounts of less than five hundred pounds and who do not manufacture, process, or otherwise use more than one million pounds of a chemical need only file a Form A certification that does not require reporting of releases. Id.
18 Id. at 2–18, tbl. 2–4.
19 Id. at 2–27, tbl. 2–9.
20 Id.
21 Id. at 2–27.
22 TRI, supra note 13, at 2–27.
23 John C. Dernbach, The Unfocused Regulation of Toxic and Hazardous Pollutants, 21 Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. 1, 2 n.5 (1997).
24 See id. at 28–29, 52–55; see generally U.S. Dep’t of Health & Hum. Servs., Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Control, Minimum Risk Levels (MRLs) for Hazardous Substances, available at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/mrls.html (last visited Aug. 22, 2000).
25 Arnold W. Reitze, Jr., Air Pollution Law 286 (1995) (citing U.S. EPA, Special Projects Office, Office of Toxic Substances, Forging an Aliance for Pollution Prevention (1991) [TS–792A]).
26 CAA � 112(i)(5)(A), 42 U.S.C. � 7412(i)(5)(A) (1994).
27 U.S. Gen. Acct. Office: Toxic Substances, Pub. No. GAO/RCED–94–207, Status of EPA’s Efforts to Reduce Toxic Releases 1 (1994).
28 Id. at 3.
29 See id.
30 Id.
31 Id.
32 TRI, supra note 13, at 2-12, tbl. 2-2.
33 See, e.g., U.S. Envtl. Protection Agency, Pub. No. EPA/451/K-98-001, Taking Toxics Out of Air 1, 2 (1998) [hereinafter Taking Toxics Out].
34 See id. at 3.
35 See id. at 4.
36 See id.
37 Id. at 5.
38 U.S. Envtl. Protection Agency, Pub. No. SAB-EC-90–021, Reducing Risk: Setting Priorities and Strategies for Environmental Protection 3 (1990).
39 Id. at 13–14.
40 See Robert L. Fischman, Biological Diversity and Enviromental Protection: Authorities to Reduce Risk, 22 Envtl. L. 435, 471 (1992); U.S. Gen. Acct. Office, Pub. No. GAO/RCED-91–102, EPA May Not Fully Achieve Toxic Air Deposition Goals 2–3 (1991) [hereinafter GAO].
41 CAA � 112(m)(1), 42 U.S.C. � 7412(m)(1) (1994).
42 Id. � 112(m)(2)–(4).
43 Id. � 112(m)(6).
44 See Fischman, supra note 40, at 471; U.S. Envtl. Protection Agency, Pub. No. EPA–453/R–97–011, Deposition of Air Pollutants to the Great Waters, Second Report to Congress 92, 148 (1997) [hereinafter Second Report to Congress].
45 Second Report to Congress, supra note 44, at 1; U.S. Envtl. Protection Agency, Pub. No. EPA-453/R-93–055, Deposition of Air Pollutants to the Great Waters, First Report to Congress 1 (1994).
46 Second Report to Congress, supra note 44, at 8.
47 Id. at 187.
48 See Taking Toxics Out, supra note 33, at 2–3.
49 See id. at 4.
50 See id.
51 See generally Arnold W. Reitze, Jr. & Sheryl-Lynn Carof, The Legal Control of Indoor Air Pollution, 25 B.C. Envtl. Aff. L. Rev. 247 (1998).
52 Id.
53 See generally Taking Toxics Out, supra note 33.
54 Carolyn Whetzel, Toxic Chemicals: Greatly Elevated Cancer Risk Found in Study on Los Angeles Pollutants, Toxics L. Daily (BNA) D-6 (April 8, 1999).
55 U.S. Gen. Acct. Office, Air Pollution, Pub. No. GAO/RCED-91–143, EPA’s Strategy and Resources May Be Inadequate to Control Air Toxics 9 (1991).
56 Good Data Lacking on Majority of Air Toxics, Env’t Week, Mar. 16, 1995, LEXIS, News Library, Curnws File; see generally Richard L. Williamson et al., Gathering Danger: The Urgent Need to Regulate Toxic Substances that Can Bioaccumulate, 20 Ecology L.Q. 605 (1993).
57 CAA � 112(p), 42 U.S.C. � 7412(p) (1994).
58 Id. � 112(p)(1).
59 The Mickey Leland National Urban Air Toxics Research Center, About the Center: Mission, http://www.sph.uth.tmc.edu/mleland/Pages/about.htm (last visited Sept. 10, 2000).
60 The Mickey Leland National Urban Air Toxics Research Center, Strategic Research Plan Update October 1999, http://www.sph.uth.tmc.edu/research/mleland /attachments/SRPjr.htm (last visited Sept. 10, 2000).
61 Id.
62 Minimal Risk Levels for Priority Substances and Guidance for Derivation, 61 Fed. Reg. 25,873, 25,873 (May 23, 1996).
63 U.S. Dep’t of Health and Human Servs., Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Minimum Risk Levels for Hazardous Substances, available at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/mrls.html (last visited Sept. 10, 2000).
64 Id.
65 Id.
66 Washington v. Gen. Motors Corp., 406 U.S. 109, 114 (1972).
67 CAA � 304(e), 42 U.S.C. � 7604(e) (1994).
68 See id. � 504(f). The permit shield doctrine would preclude any claim based on a emissions or conditions that were allowed under the permit. Id.
69 Id. �112, .
70 1977 CAA Amendments, � 112(b)(1)(A)–(B) amended by 42 U.S.C. � 7401 (1994).
71 See id.
72 Id. � 112(b)(l)(B), CAA as Amended August 1977, Serial No. 95–11, 95th Congress, 1st Sess. (1977).
73 See Taking Toxics Out, supra note 33, at 5–6.
74 The mechanics of the NESHAP program took about three years to complete, although lack of resources and/or political problems often extended the period.
75 See generally 40 C.F.R. pt. 61 (1992). The annual air toxics reduction from the regulation of these seven chemicals was estimated at 125,000 tons. Taking Toxics Out, supra note 33, at 5.
76 NESHAPs: Addition of Coke Oven Emissions to List of HAPs, 49 Fed. Reg. 36,560 (Sept. 18, 1984).
77 Benzene emissions from coke by-product recovery plants are regulated at 40 C.F.R. �� 61.130–.139 (2000).
78 Intent to List Chromium or Hexavalent Chromium as a HAP, 50 Fed. Reg. 24,317 (June 10, 1985).
79 NESHAPs: Standards for Inorganic Arsenic, 51 Fed. Reg. 27,956 (Aug. 4, 1986) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. �� 61.160–.167, 61.170–.177, 61.180–.186).
80 See generally NESHAPs: Vinyl Chloride; Equipment Leaks of Volatile HAPs, 51 Fed. Reg. 34,904 (Sept. 30, 1986) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. �� 61.60–.71).
81 Mercury sources covered by 40 C.F.R. � 61.50 (2000) include stationary sources that process mercury ore, use mercury chlor-alkali cells to produce chlorine gas and alkali metal hydroxide, and that incinerate or dry wastewater treatment plant sludge. Amendments to Standards for Asbestos and Mercury, 40 Fed. Reg. 48,292, 48,302 (1975).
82 See NESHAPs: Standards for Radon–222 Emissions from Licensed Uranium Mill Tailings, 51 Fed. Reg. 34,056 (Sept. 24, 1986) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. �� 61.220–.226); see generally Karen Hoyden Curtin, Indoor Radon: Regulating a Blameless Cause, 3 Buff. Envtl. L.J. 181 (1996).
83 NESHAPs: Radionuclides, 54 Fed. Reg. 51,654, 51,701 (Sept. 15, 1989) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. �� 61.190–.193).
84 See NESHAPs: National Emissions Standards for Radon Emissions from Phosphogypsum Stacks, 57 Fed. Reg. 23,305 (June 3, 1992) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. �� 61.200–.210).
85 NESHAPs: Radionuclides, 54 Fed. Reg. at 51,699.
86 See 40 C.F.R. �� 61.220–61.225 (2000).
87 NESHAPs: Polonium-210 Emissions from Elemental Phosphorus Plants, 56 Fed. Reg. 65,934, 65,943 (Dec. 19, 1991) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 61).
88 NESHAPs: Radionuclides, 54 Fed. Reg. at 51,703.
89 NESHAPs: Radionuclides, 54 Fed. Reg. at 51,702.
90 42 U.S.C. �� 7901–7942 (1988).
91 See Radioactive Waste: Uranium Tailing Emission Program May Shift to Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 22 Envtl. Rep. (BNA) 2101 (Jan. 3, 1992).
92 Id.
93 Id.
94 Id.
95 Id.
96 CAA � 112(g)(1), (3); 42 U.S.C. � 7412(g)(1), (3) (1994).
97 Environmentalists, Mining Industry Reach Deal on EPA Radionuclides Rule, Inside EPA, Sept. 18, 1992, at 16.
98 Natural Res. Def. Council, Inc. v. Reilly, 976 F.2d 36, 41 (D.C. Cir. 1992).
99 551 F. Supp. 785 (N.D. Cal. 1982).
100 See id. In the 1977 CAA Amendments, section 122 required EPA to investigate radionuclides to determine whether they pose a health risk, and if so, to list them as hazardous and issue emission standards. In November, 1979, EPA issued its determination that radionuclides were hazardous pollutants. When EPA failed to issue regulations, the Sierra Club sued and obtained a court order requiring proposed regulations to be issued. Sierra Club v. Gorsuch, 551 F. Supp. at 786. Proposed regulations were issued on April 6, 1983. When EPA failed to either issue final regulations or make a finding that radionuclides were not hazardous as required by section 112(b)(1)(B), the Sierra Club sued EPA again. On July 27, 1984, a federal district court ordered EPA to issue final regulations. After subsequent moves to amend the July 27, 1984 order failed, on October 23, 1984, EPA announced the withdrawal of proposed radionuclide emission standards for three of the four categories of sources for which proposed standards had been issued. The four categories were: DOE facilities, NRC-licensed facilities, elemental phosphorus plants, and underground uranium mines. EPA also announced it would not regulate five other sources of radionuclides for which no proposed regulations had been issued. EPA made this announcement while affirming the risk to health from radionuclides. This led to a contempt order against EPA in Sierra Club v. Ruckelshaus. See 602 F. Supp. 892, 904 (N.D. Cal. 1984).
101 See Ruckelshaus, 602 F. Supp. at 904.
102 554 F. Supp. 1060 (S.D.N.Y. 1983). In 1977 Congress enacted section 122 as part of the CAA Amendments that directed the Administrator to determine within one year whether arsenic should be regulated. On June 5, 1980, almost two years later than required by the statute, the Administrator listed inorganic arsenic as a hazardous air pollutant. NESHAPs: Addition of Inorganic Arsenic to List of HAPs, 45 Fed. Reg. 37,886 (June 5, 1980). This listing required the Administrator to publish regulations within 180 days. When EPA failed to act, New York State sued to force the Administrator of EPA to perform her nondiscretionary duty. On January 12, 1983, a federal court ordered the Administrator to publish regulations within 180 days. Gorsuch, 554 F. Supp. at 1060. See generally Gregory D. Call, Arsenic, ASARCO, and EPA: Cost-Benefit Analysis, Public Participation, and Polluter Games in the Regulation of Hazardous Air Pollutants, 12 Ecology L.Q. 567 (1985).
103 CAA � 112(a)(1), 42 U.S.C. � 7412(a)(1) (Pre-1990 Amendments).
104 Id. � 122.
105 Id. � 122(a).
106 The Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA), as amended, and the CWA since 1977 are the same statute. Since 1977, the CWA is the term usually used.
107 Citizens for a Better Env’t v. Gorsuch, 718 F.2d 1117, 1130 (D.C. Cir. 1983).
108 See Renee S. Dankner, Safety Before Feasibility: A Two-Step Approach to Regulating Hazardous Air Pollutants, 56 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 799, 803 (1988).
109 See id.
110 See id. (citing NESHAPs, 42 Fed. Reg. 28,154 (June 2, 1977)).
111 See Dankner, supra note 108, at 803.
112 See id.
113 See, e.g., Citizens for a Better Env’t, 718 F.2d at 1121 (noting a compliance period of only three and one-half years for proposed regulation of pollutants).
114 See id.
115 Standard For Vinyl Chloride, 41 Fed. Reg. 46,560 (Oct. 21, 1976). EPA had listed vinyl chloride as a hazardous air pollutant at HAPs, Addition to List, 40 Fed. Reg. 59,477 (Dec. 24, 1975).
116 Standard For Vinyl Chloride, 41 Fed. Reg. at 46,559–60.
117 Envtl. Def. Fund v. Train, No. 76-2405 (D.C. Cir. June 24, 1976).
118 See Dankner, supra note 108, at 803–04.
119 NESHAPs, 42 Fed. Reg. 28,154 (June 2, 1977).
120 For a discussion of the effects of vinyl chloride exposure see Society of Plastics Industry, Inc. v. Occupational Safety & Health Administration. See 509 F.2d 1301 (2d Cir. 1975); see also David D. Doniger, Federal Regulation of Vinyl Chloride: A Short Course in the Law and Policy of Toxic Substances Control, 7 Ecology L.Q. 497, 522–27 (1978); Christopher Schroeder, A Decade of Change in Regulating the Chemical Industry, 46 Law & Contemp. Probs. 1, 4–9 (1983).
121 NESHAPs: Vinyl Chloride, 50 Fed. Reg. 1182 (proposed Jan. 8, 1985) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 61).
122 Id. at 1184.
123 Natural Res. Def. Council v. U.S. EPA, 824 F.2d 1146, 1164 (D.C. Cir. 1987) [hereinafter Vinyl II].
124 Id. at 1164–65 & n.11.
125 Id. at 1148–49.
126 Id.
127 Id.
128 See Vinyl II, 824 F.2d at 1153–54.
129 Id. at 1153 (citing Indus. Union Dep’t, AFL-CIO v. Am. Petroleum Inst., 448 U.S. 607, 642 (1980)).
130 Id. at 1157, 1163.
131 Id. at 1165.
132 Id.
133 In 1977, EPA listed benzene as a hazardous air pollutant. For a history of how NRDC fought for EPA to issue benzene regulations from 1983 to 1988 see NRDC v. EPA. See 695 F. Supp. 48, 49–52 (D.D.C. 1988). That case only resulted in a court order requiring EPA to issue final determinations on whether to regulate emissions of benzene from a variety of chemical manufacturing process units. After a follow-up court action, the EPA finally issued a proposed rule. See NRDC v. EPA, 705 F. Supp. 698 (D.D.C. 1989); NESHAPs: Benzene Emissions from Chemical Manufacturing Process Vents, Industrial Solvent Use, Benzene Waste Operations, Benzene Transfer Operations, and Gasoline Marketing System, 54 Fed. Reg. 38,083 (Sept. 14, 1989) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 61). The complete list of benzene regulations follows:

(1) NESHAPs: Addition of Benzene to List of HAPs, 42 Fed. Reg. 29,332, (June 3, 1977).

(2) Standards of Performance of New Stationary Sources: Emissions Limitation of Volatile Organic Compounds From Gasoline Tank Truck Loading Racks at Bulk Gasoline Terminals, 45 Fed. Reg. 83,126 (proposed Dec. 17, 1980) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 60).

(3) Standards of Performance for New Stationary Sources: Bulk Gasoline Terminals, 48 Fed. Reg. 37,578 (Aug. 18, 1983) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 60).

(4) NESHAPs: Regulation of Benzene, 49 Fed. Reg. 23,478 (June 6, 1984) (Response to Comments) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 61).

(5) Regulatory Strategies for the Gasoline Marketing Industry, 49 Fed. Reg. 31,706 (Aug. 8, 1984) (Notice of Document Availability for Public Comment) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. ch. 1).

(6) Standards of Performance of New Stationary Sources: Volatile Organic Liquid Storage Vessels (Including Petroleum Liquid Storage Vessels) Constructed after July 23, 1984, 52 Fed. Reg. 11,420 (Apr. 8, 1987) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 60).

(7) Control of Air Pollution from New Motor Vehicles and New Motor Vehicle Engines: Refueling Emission Regulations for Gasoline-Fueled Light-Duty Vehicles and Trucks and Heavy-Duty Vehicles, 52 Fed. Reg. 31,162 (proposed Aug. 19, 1987) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pts. 80, 86, 600).

(8) Occupational Exposure to Benzene, 52 Fed. Reg. 34,460 (Sept. 11, 1987) (to be codified at 29 C.F.R. pt. 1910).

(9) Standards of Performance for New Stationary Sources: Rubber Tire Manufacturing Industry, 52 Fed. Reg. 34,868 (Sept. 15, 1987) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 60).

(10) NESHAPs: Benzene Emissions from Maleic Anhydride Plants, Ethylbenzene/Styrene Plants, Benzene Storage Vessels, Benzene Equipment Leaks, and Coke By-Product Recovery Plants, 53 Fed. Reg. 28,496 (proposed July 28, 1988) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 61).

The benzene regulations were the subject of litigation in Monsanto Co. v. EPA, 19 F.3d 1201 (7th Cir. 1994).
134 NESHAPs: Radionuclides, 54 Fed. Reg. 51,654 (Dec. 15, 1989) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 61).
135 However, proposed Vinyl Chloride NESHAP revisions are found at: NESHAPs: Revisions to Vinyl Chloride; Equipment Leaks of Volatile HAPs, 54 Fed. Reg. 38,938 (proposed Sept. 21, 1989) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 61).
136 NESHAPs: Benzene Emissions from Maleic Anhydride Plants, Ethylbenzene/Styrene Plants, Benzene Storage Vessels, Benzene Equipment Leaks, and Coke By-Product Recovery Plants, 54 Fed. Reg. 38,044, 38,045 (Sept. 14, 1989) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 61).
137 NESHAPs: Radionuclides, 54 Fed. Reg. at 51,655.
138 Id.
139 CAA � 110, 42 U.S.C. � 7410 (1994).
140 Id. � 111.
141 40 C.F.R. pt. 60, subpart AAA (2000).
142 See generally Arnold W. Reitze, Jr., Mobile Source Air Pollution Control, 6 Envtl. Law. 309, 315 (2000).
143 See generally Arnold W. Reitze, Jr., The Regulation of Fuels and Fuel Additives Under Section 211 of the Clean Air Act, 29 Tulsa L.J. 485 (1994).
144 Federal Programs Expanded, State Role Increased Under Revised Air Toxics Strategy, 16 Env’t Rep. (BNA) 235 (June 7, 1985).
145 See generally N.J. Dep’t of Envtl. Protection, Air Toxics Overview, available at http://www.state.nj.us/dep/airmon/airtoxics/overview.htm (last visited Sept. 10, 2000); California Air Resources Bd., California Air Toxics Program Background, available at http://www.arb.ca.gov/toxics/background.htm (last visited Sept. 10, 2000) .
146 See Approval of State Programs and Delegation of Federal Authorities, 58 Fed. Reg. 62,262 (Nov. 26, 1993) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pts. 9, 63).
147 U.S. Gen. Acct. Office, Pub. No. GAO/RCED-87–76, Air Pollution, States Assigned a Major Role in EPA’s Air Toxics Strategy 3 (1987).
148 29 C.F.R. p. 1910, subpart H (2000).
149 AFL/CIO v. Occupational Safety & Health Admin., 965 F.2d 962, 975–76, 981–82 (11th Cir. 1992).
150 CAA � 112(d)(2), 42 U.S.C. � 7412(d)(2) (1994).
151 Id. � 112(q).
152 Id. � 112(q)(1).
153 Id.
154 See id.
155 See generally id..
156 See CAA; see also Vinyl II, 824 F.2d 1146, 1153 (D.C. Cir. 1987)(rejecting NRDC’s argument for a zero emission standard when a no-risk threshold could not be determined).
157 See supra text accompanying note 133 (outlining the HAPs regulated prior to the 1990 CAA Amendments).
158 See West Group, Selected Environmental Law Statutes: 1989–90 Educational Edition 663–65 (1989).
159 See West Group, Selected Environmental Law Statutes: 1991–92 Educational Edition 704–32 (1991).
160 See CWA � 307(a)(2), 42 U.S.C. � 1317(a)(2) (1994).
161 See CAA � 112(d).
162 Id. � 112(a)(1). Note that the definition of major source under section 112 is more inclusive than the regulatory definition of major source used under the new source review provisions. See 40 C.F.R. � 51.165(a)(1) (2000); see also infra section III(C).
163 CAA � 112(a)(1).
164 Id. � 111(a)(3).
165 Id. � 112(a)(1).
166 Id. � 112(a)(2).
167 Id.
168 Id.CAA � 112(a)(4).
169 CAA � 112(a)(6).
170 Id. � 112(a)(7).
171 � 313, 42 U.S.C. � 11023 (1994).
172 CERCLA � 104(i), 42 U.S.C. � 9604(i) (1994).
173 See Dernbach, supra note 23, at 41.
174 Id. at 14. “The magnitude of inconsistencies is evident from a comparison of the pollutants on any two of the lists. . . . [M]ore than two-thirds of the total pollutants regulated under any two programs are regulated under only one of those programs.” Id. at 15.
175 See id. at 41–42.
176 See CAA � 112(b)(2), 42 U.S.C. � 7412(b)(2) (1994).
177 Id. � 112(b)(3)(A).
178 James Kennedy, EPA Investigates Hydrogen Sulfide Exposure, “Seriously” Considers Future Listing as HAP, Daily Env’t Rep. (BNA) A-1 (Nov. 19, 1999).
179 Caprolactam was removed on June 18, 1996. See 61 Fed. Reg. 30,816 (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 63.60). The delisting process is found at CAA � 112(b)(3)(C), (D).
180 HAP List, 64 Fed. Reg. 33,453 (proposed June 23, 1999) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 63).
181 Petition to Delist Methanol from the List of HAPs, 64 Fed. Reg. 38,668 (petition completed July 19, 1999). See also Pamela Najor, EPA to Review Petition for Removal of Methanol from Section 112 List of HAPs, Toxics L. Daily (BNA) D-2 (July 21, 1999).
182 See, e.g., HAP List: Modification, 61 Fed. Reg. 30,816 (June 18, 1996) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. � 63.60).
183 CAA � 112(b)(4), 42 U.S.C. � 7412(b)(4) (1994).
184 Id. � 112(c)(1).
185 Id. � 112(c)(3).
186 Id. � 111(a)(3).
187 See Nat’l Mining Ass’n v. EPA, 59 F.3d 1351, 1356 (D.C. Cir. 1995).
188 See id. at 1357.
189 See NESHAPs: General Provisions, 59 Fed. Reg. 12,408, 12,434 (Mar. 16, 1994)(to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 63).
190 See id.
191 Initial List of Categories of Sources Under Section 112(c)(1) of the CAA Amendments of 1990, 57 Fed. Reg. 31,576, 31,578 (July 16, 1992).
192 See id. at 31,580.
193 See id.
194 See id. at 31,576.
195 See id. at 31,577.
196 Initial List of Categories of Sources Under Section 112(c)(1) of the CAA Amendments of 1990, 57 Fed. Reg. 31,576, 31,577 (July 16, 1992).
197 See id.
198 See id.
199 42 U.S.C. � 7412 (c)(6). These specifically excluded emissions include chemicalspolycyclic organic matter; polychlorinated biphenyls; 2, 3, 7, 8—tetrachlorodibenzofuran; 2, 3, 7, 8—tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin; hexachlorobenzene; mercury; and alkylated lead. Id.
200 Initial List of Categories of Sources Under Section 112(c)(1) of the CAA Amendments of 1990, 57 Fed. Reg. 31,576 (July 16, 1992).
201 See id. at 31,590, tbl. 1.
202 See generally NESHAPs: Schedule for the Promulgation of Emission Standards Under Section 112(c) of the CAA, 58 Fed. Reg. 63,941 (Dec. 3, 1993).
203 See id.
204 CAA �� 112(c)(5), (9), 42 U.S.C. �� 7412(c)(5), (9) (1994).
205 Id. � 112(c)(5).
206 Id. � 112(c)(9)(B)(i)–(ii).
207 Id. � 112(c)(9)(B).
208 Id. � 112(c)(1).
209 See, e.g., NESHAPs: Revision of Initial List of Categories of Sources and Schedule for Standards Under Sections 112(c) and (e) of the CAA Amendments of 1990, 61 Fed. Reg. 28,197 (June 4, 1996).
210 See id.
211 59 F.3d 1351, 1356 (D.C. Cir. 1995).
212 NESHAPs: Revision of Initial List of Categories of Sources and Schedule for Standards Under Sections 112(c) and (e) of the CAA Amendments of 1990, 61 Fed. Reg. at 28,198.
213 NESHAPs: Revision of Initial List of Categories of Sources and Schedule for Standards Under Sections 112(c) and (e) of the CAA Amendments of 1990, 61 Fed. Reg. 37,542 (July 18, 1996).
214 NESHAPs: Revision of List of Categories of Sources and Schedule for Standards Under Section 112 of the CAA, 63 Fed. Reg. 7155 (Feb. 12, 1998).
215 Source Category Listing for Section 112(d)(2) Rulemaking Pursuant to Section 112(c)(6) Requirements, 63 Fed. Reg. 17,838 (Apr. 10, 1998) (notice).
216 NESHAPs: Revision of Schedule for Standards Under Section 112 of the CAA, 64 Fed. Reg. 26,743 (May 17, 1999).
217 NESHAPs: Revision of Source Category List and Schedule for Standards Under Section 112 of the CAA, 64 Fed. Reg. 63,026 (Nov. 18, 1999).
218 NESHAPs: Revision of Initial List of Categories of Sources and Schedule for Standards Under Sections 112(c) and (e) of the CAA Amendments of 1990, 61 Fed. Reg. at 28,198.
219 Id.
220 Id.
221 NESHAPs: Schedule for the Promulgation of Emission Standards Under Section 112(e) of the CAA Amendments of 1990, 58 Fed. Reg. 63,941 (Dec. 3, 1993); see also NESHAPs: Revision of Initial List of Categories of Sources and Schedule for Standards Under Sections 112(c) and (e) of the CAA Amendments of 1990, 61 Fed. Reg. at 28,198.
222 See NESHAPs: Revision of Initial List of Categories of Sources and Schedule for Standards Under Sections 112(c) and (e) of the CAA Amendments of 1990, 61 Fed. Reg. at 28,197–198.
223 Defined at CAA � 112(k), 42 U.S.C. � 7412(k) (1994).
224 Id. � 112(c)(3).
225 See infra section III(K).
226 CAA � 112(e)(4).
227 Nat’l Mining Ass’n v. EPA, 59 F.3d 1351, 1354–65 (D.C. Cir. 1995).
228 Id. at 1354.
229 Id.
230 Id.
231 CAA � 307(d)(9).
232 Id.
233 Nat’l Mining Ass’n, 59 F.3d at 1354.
234 Id. at 1357 (referring to Ala. Power Co. v. Costle, 636 F.2d 323 (D.C. Cir. 1979)).
235 CAA � 182(a)(c).
236 Nat’l Mining Ass’n, 59 F.3d at 1359.
237 See id.
238 Id. at 1364.
239 Id. at 1360–61.
240 Id.
241 Id.
242 Nat’l Mining Ass’n, 59 F.3d at 1365.
243 Nat’l Mining Ass’n v. EPA, 1996 WL 10101 at *1 (D.C. Cir. 1996).
244 Id.
245 CAA � 112(d)(2), 42 U.S.C. � 7412(d)(2) (1994).
246 Id. � 112(d)(2).
247 Id.
248 NESHAPs: General Provisions, 58 Fed. Reg. 42,760, 42,762 (proposed Aug. 11, 1993) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pts. 60, 61, 63).
249 Id.
250 CAA � 112(d)(4).
251 New sources include modified or reconstructed sources. See Standards of Performance for New Stationary Sources, 40 C.F.R. �� 60.14–.15 (2000).
252 CAA � 112(d)(3)(A).
253 Id. � 112(d)(3)(B).
254 Id. � 112(d)(2).
255 Id. � 112(d)(1).
256 Id. � 112(c).
257 Id. � 112(d)(1).
258 CAA � 112(c)(6).
259 Id.
260 Id. � 112(e)(1)(E).
261 U.S. Envtl. Prot. Agency, Pub. No. EPA-453/R-96–015, Second Report to Cong. on the Status of the Hazardous Air Pollutant Program Under the Clean Air Act 1 (1997) [hereinafter Second Report to Congress on the Status of the HAP Program].
262 CAA � 112(i)(2).
263 Id. �� 112(e), (i).
264 Id. � 112(j)(5).
265 Id.
266 See id. � 112(d)(2).
267 See, e.g., Id. � 112(c)(9)(B)(ii),.
268 CAA � 112(f)(2)(A).
269 Id. � 112(f)(2).
270 Id. � 112(o).
271 Id. � 112(a)(2).
272 Id. � 112(a), (c)(3), (d)(5).
273 Id. � 112(d)(5).
274 Unified Air Toxics Website: Final MACT Standards, available at http://www.epa.gov/ttn/uatw/mactfnl.html (last visited Sept. 10, 2000).
275 Second Report to Congress on the Status of the HAP Program, supra note 261, at 1–2.
276 Unified Air Toxics Website: Proposed MACT Standards, available at http://www.epa.gov/ttn/uatw/mactprop.html (last visited Sept. 10, 2000).
277 Unified Air Toxics Website: Upcoming MACT Standards, available at http://www.epa.gov/ttn/uatw/mactupd.html (last visited Sept. 10, 2000).
278 U.S. Envtl. Protection Agency, Pub. No. EPA-453/R-99–001, Residual Risk: Report to Congress 10 (1999) [hereinafter Residual Risk]. The website is located at http://www.epa.gov/iris.
279 HAPs: Regulations Governing Equivalent Emission Limitations by Permit, 59 Fed. Reg. 26,429, 26,431 (May 20, 1994) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pts. 9, 63).
280 Id. at 26,430, tbl. 1.
281 HAPs: Amendment to Regulations Governing Equivalent Emission Limitations by Permit, 64 Fed. Reg. 26,311 (May 14, 1999) (to be codified at 63 C.F.R. pt. 63).
282 See id.; see also CAA � 112(j), 42 U.S.C. � 7412(j) (1994).
283 U.S. Gen. Acct. Office, Pub. No. GAO/RCED-00–72, Air Pollution, Status of Implementation and Issues of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 35 (2000).
284 See generally EPA Standards of Performance for New Stationary Sources, 40 C.F.R. pt. 60 (1990); EPA NESHAPs, 40 C.F.R. pt. 61 (1990).
285 NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, 58 Fed. Reg. 42,760 (proposed Aug. 11, 1993) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pts. 60, 61, 63).
286 Id. at 42,760.
287 NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, 59 Fed. Reg. 12,408 (Mar. 16, 1994) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pts. 60, 61, 63).
288 CAA � 112(b).
289 Initial List of Categories of Sources Under Section 112(c)(1) of the CAA Amendments of 1990, 57 Fed. Reg. 31,576 (July 16, 1992).
290 NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, 59 Fed. Reg. at 12,408, 12,411. Until a source is subject to a 40 C.F.R. part 63 standard, the General Provisions do not apply.
291 NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, Applicability, 40 C.F.R. � 63.1(a)(3) (2000).
292 NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, 59 Fed. Reg. at 12,408.
293 40 C.F.R. � 63.1(a)(4).
294 CAA � 112(d)(1).
295 NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, 59 Fed. Reg. at 12,410.
296 Id. Potential to emit is covered in detail in the final rule of June 28, 1989. Requirements for the Preparation, Adoption, and Submittal of Implementation Plans; Approval and Promulgation of Implementation Plans, 54 Fed. Reg. 27,274 (1989) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pts. 51, 52).
297 But see Nat’l Mining Ass’n v. EPA, 59 F.3d 1351 (D.C. Cir. 1995).
298 NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, 59 Fed. Reg. at 12,411. There is an exception for oil and gas wells at CAA � 112(n)(4).
299 NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, 59 Fed. Reg. at 12,412.
300 Id.
301 See NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, 40 C.F.R. � 63.2 (2000).
302 NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, 59 Fed. Reg. at 12,413.
303 CAA � 112(g)(2), 42 U.S.C. � 7412(g)(2) (1994).
304 Id. � 112(j)(2).
305 Id. � 112(j)(5).
306 NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, 59 Fed. Reg. at 12,415.
307 CAA � 112(j)(5).
308 Id.
309 NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, 59 Fed. Reg. at 12,416.
310 Id.
311 Id.
312 EPA has also issued a guidance document on preparing a Notice of MACT Approval. U.S. EPA, Preparing a Notice of MACT Approval Under � 63.43(g) of 40 CFR 63, Subpart B Maximum Achievable Control Technology Emission Limitation for Constructed or Reconstructed Sources (1999).
313 HAPs: Amendment to Regulations Governing Equivalent Emission Limitations by Permit, 61 Fed. Reg. 21,370 (May 10, 1996) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 63). A similar proposed rule was issued at the same time in HAPs: Amendment to Regulations Governing Equivalent Emission Limitations by Permit, 61 Fed. Reg. 21,414 (May 10, 1996) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 63).
314 See CAA � 112(c)(3), 42 U.S.C. � 7412(c)(3) (1994).
315 See id. � 112(g)(2).
316 Id. �� 112(g)(2)(A), (j)(5).
317 Id. � 112(h)(1).
318 Id. � 502(b)(3)(B)(ii).
319 HAPs: Proposed Regulations Governing Constructed, Reconstructed or Modified Major Sources, 59 Fed. Reg. 15,504 (proposed Apr. 1, 1994) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pts. 63, 70).
320 Draft Final Rule Limits Applicability of Standards Under Air Act Section 112(g), Daily Env’t Rep. (BNA) A-4 (Mar. 21, 1996).
321 HAPs: Regulations Governing Constructed or Reconstructed Major Sources, 61 Fed. Reg. 68,384 (Dec. 27, 1996) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 63).
322 Id. at 68,386.
323 Id. at 68,385.
324 Id. at 68,386.
325 Id.
326 HAPs: Regulations Governing Constructed or Reconstructed Major Sources, 61 Fed. Reg. at 68,387 .
327 Id. at 68,401.
328 Id.
329 HAPs: Regulations Governing Constructed or Reconstructed Major Sources, 64 Fed. Reg. 35,029 (June 30, 1999) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 63).
330 HAPs: Constructed or Reconstructed Major Source Regulations, 61 Fed. Reg. at 68,384.
331 Id. at 68,388.
332 U.S. EPA, Questions and Answers on 112(g) Final Rule, at http://www.epa.gov /ttn/uatw/112g/qanda12g.html (last visited Sept. 10, 2000).
333 HAPs: Constructed or Reconstructed Major Source Regulations, 61 Fed. Reg. at 68,388.
334 NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, 59 Fed. Reg. 12,408, 12,436 (Mar. 16, 1994) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. �� 63.5(b)(3) and 63.5(d)). “Affected source” is defined at 40 C.F.R. section 63.2 as the source or group of sources or portion of a source subject to a CAA section 112 standard. This definition only applies to the use of the term in the context of part 63. See id.
335 Id. at 12,420.
336 Id. at 12,416.
337 Id.; see also Provisions Governing Construction, Reconstruction or Modified Sources, 59 Fed. Reg. 15,504 (Apr. 1, 1994), 60 Fed. Reg. 8333, (Feb. 14, 1995)(to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 63); NESHAPs for Source Categories General Provisions, 59 Fed. Reg. at 12,416 ; HAPs: Proposed Regulations Governing Constructed, Reconstructed or Modified Major Sources, 59 Fed. Reg. 15,504 (Apr. 1, 1994) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pts. 63, 70).
338 NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, 59 Fed. Reg. at 12,408, adopting the policy laid out in Modification, Notification, and Reconstruction, 40 Fed. Reg. 58, 416, 58,416 (Dec. 16, 1975) (codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 60).
339 NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, 59 Fed. Reg. at 12,438.
340 Id. at 12,421, 12,437.
341 Id. at 12,423, 12,455.
342 CAA � 112(g)(2),(i),(j), 42 U.S.C. � 7412(g)(2),(i),(j) (1994).
343 NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, 59 Fed. Reg. at 12,417.
344 State Operating Permit Programs, 40 C.F.R. pt. 70 (2000).
345 Operating Permit Program, 57 Fed. Reg. 32,250 (July 21, 1992) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 70).
346 NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, 59 Fed. Reg. at 12,417.
347 40 C.F.R. pt. 70.
348 Memorandum from U.S. EPA, Lydia N. Wegman, Deputy Director, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Definition of Regulated Air Pollutant for Purposes of Title V, to Air Division Directors, Regions I-X 3 (Apr. 26, 1993) (on file with autho).
349 Id.
350 See EPA State Operating Permit Programs, 40 C.F.R. � 70.5 (2000).
351 NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, 59 Fed. Reg. at 12,417.
352 NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, 58 Fed. Reg. 42,760 (proposed Aug. 11, 1993) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pts. 60, 61, 63).
353 Id. at 42,763.
354 Agency Says Startup/Shutdown Plans Not Required in Operating Permits, Daily Env’t Rep. (BNA) A-3 (Jan. 23, 1996).
355 Id.
356 Id.
357 Id.
358 Id.
359 Id. at A-1.
360 Enhanced Monitoring Program, 58 Fed. Reg. 54,648 (proposed Oct. 22, 1993) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pts. 51, 52, 60, 61, 64).
361 NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, 59 Fed. Reg. 12,408, 12,417 (Mar. 16, 1994) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. �� 63.5(b)(3), (d)).
362 Defined at NESHAPs for Source Categories: General Provisions, 40 C.F.R. � 63.2 (2000).
363 NESHAPs for Source Categories General Provisions, 59 Fed. Reg. at 12,447.
364 Id. at 12,444.
365 Id. at 12,419.
366 Id. at 12,420.
367 Id. at 12,426.
368 Id. at 12,424.
369 Consolidated Emissions Reporting, 65 Fed. Reg. 33,268 (May 23, 2000) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 51).
370 Id. at 33,270.
371 Id; see also National Air Toxics Program: The Integrated Urban Strategy, 64 Fed. Reg. 38,706 (July 19, 1999) (notice).
372 Consolidated Emissions Reporting, 65 Fed. Reg. at 33,271.
373 Id.
374 See Renee J. Robins, et al., MIT Energy Lab., Symposium Summary: EPA’s Urban Toxics Air Strategy 1999 Urban Air Toxics Summer Symposium 3 (1999) [hereinafter Toxics Symposium] (on file with author).
375 Id.
376 CAA � 112(o)(1), 42 U.S.C. � 7412(o)(1) (1994).
377 Id. � 112(o)(1)(B)(3).
378 See Risk Assessment and Management Commission, 59 Fed. Reg. 30,931 (June 16, 1994) (notice). The report was issued on June 16, 1994. Id.
379 CAA � 112(o)(4).
380 See 1990 Amendments to the CAA � 303, Pub. L. No. 101-549(c) (1990).
381 See id.
382 CAA � 112(f)(1).
383 Id. � 112(g)(1)(A).
384 See supra note 378 and accompanying text.
385 The Presidential/Congressional Commission on Risk Assessment and Risk Management, Framework for Environmental Health Risk Management, Final Report Vol. 1 (1997), available at http://www.riskworld.com/Nreports/1997/risk–rpt/pdf/EPAJAN.PDF (last visited Sept. 19, 2000).
386 Id. at Preface.
387 See id.
388 See generally The Presidential/Congressional Commission on Risk Assessment and Risk Management, Risk Assessment and Risk Management In Regulatory Decision-Making 23 (1997).
389 See generally U.S. Envtl. Prot. Agency, Pub. No. EPA–630–R95–002F, Guidelines for Ecological Risk Assessment (1998).
390 Id. at 2–3. The first phase is problem formulation, the second analysis, and the last is risk characterization.
391 Residual Risk, supra note 278, at ES-4.
392 Id. at ES-5.
393 Id. at ES-6.
394 Id. at ES-5.
395 Id. at ES-11. See Alec Zacaroli, Air Pollution: Framework for Addressing Residual Risks from Air Toxics Modeled After Benzene Rule, Daily Env’t Rep. (BNA) A-2 (Mar. 5, 1999). The benzene NESHAP is found at NESHAPs: Benzene Emissions from Maleic Anhydride Plants, Benzene Storage Vessels, Benzene Equipment Leaks, and Coke By-Product Recovery Plants, 54 Fed. Reg. 38,044 (Sept. 14, 1989).
396 824 F.2d 1146, 1151 (D.C. Cir. 1987).
397 H.R. Conf. Rep. No. 101–952 (1990).
398NESHAPs: Benzene Emissions from Maleic Anhydride Plants, Ethylbenzene/Styrene Plants, Benzene Storage Vessels, Benzene Equipment Leaks, and Coke By-Product Recovery Plants, 54 Fed. Reg. 38,044 (Sept. 14, 1989) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 61).
399 Id. at 38,044; see Residual Risk, supra note 278, at ES-11, 8.
400 Pat Phibbs, Panel Says EPA Needs Much More Data to Conduct Full Residual Risk Analysis, Daily Env’t Rep. (BNA) A-14 (May 4, 2000); see Problems Estimating Exposures, Impacts Prompt Consideration of New Methodology, Daily Env’t Rep. (BNA) A-7 (Apr. 22, 1999).
401 Proposed Test Rule for HAPs, 61 Fed. Reg. 33,178 (June 26, 1996) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 799). The ATSDR has also published a guidance manual focusing on the lack of data in public health assessments for CERCLA sites, which includes a discussion of the analysis of air pollutants. U.S. Dep’t of Health and Human Servs., Pub. No. PB94–179827, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Environmental Data Needed for Public Health Assessments: A Guidance Manual (1994).
402 EPA Extends Comment Period Again for TSCA Air Pollutant Proposed Rule, Daily Env’t Rep. (BNA) A-11 (Dec. 1, 1997).
403 Amended Proposed Test Rule for HAPs: Extension of Comment Period, 63 Fed. Reg. 19,694 (Apr. 21, 1998) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 799).
404 Id. at 19,695.
405 Unified Agenda: TSCA, 65 Fed. Reg. 23,531 (Apr. 24, 2000).
406 See CAA � 112(i), 42 U.S.C. � 7412(i) (1994).
407 Id.
408 Id. � 112(d).
409 Id. �� 112(d), (i)(5).
410 Id. � 112(i)(5).
411 Regulations Governing Compliance Extensions for Early Reductions of HAPs, 40 C.F.R. � 63.74 (2000).
412 Id.
413 NESHAPs for Source Categories: Compliance Extensions for Early Reductions, 57 Fed. Reg. 34,132 (Aug. 3, 1992) (notice); 57 Fed. Reg. 43,001 (Sept. 17, 1992) (notice); 57 Fed. Reg. 61,970 (Dec. 29, 1992); 58 Fed. Reg. 26,916 (May 6, 1993) (notice); 59 Fed. Reg. 7224 (Feb. 15, 1994) (notice). There were amendments to the rule made on November 29, 1993 at NESHAPs: Amendments to Compliance Extensions for Early Reductions, 58 Fed. Reg. 62,539 (1993) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 63).
414 There were high risk list amendments at NESHAPs for Source Categories: Early Reductions Program High Risk List Amendment, 59 Fed. Reg. 32,165 (June 22, 1994) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 63); 59 Fed. Reg. 53,109 (Oct. 21, 1994) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 63).
415 NESHAP Early Reduction Program Amendments, 57 Fed. Reg. at 61,981.
416 Chem. Mfrs. Ass’n v. EPA, 28 F.3d 1259, 1264 (D.C. Cir. 1994).
417 Alex Zacaroli, Determination on Protecting Great Waters Troubles States, Garners Industry Support, Daily Env’t Rep. (BNA) AA-1 (Sept. 10, 1997).
418 Id.
419 Regions Get Authority to Decide Whether State Toxics Rules Meet Federal Standards, Daily Env’t Rep. (BNA) D-6 (July 6, 1995).
420 Second Report to Congress on the Status of the HAP Program, supra note 261, at A-9.
421 CAA � 112(d)(5), 42 U.S.C. � 7412(d)(5) (1994).
422 Id. � 201(l).
423 Id. � 112(f).
424 Id.
425 Id. �� 112(c)(3), (k), 202(l).
426 Id. � 112(d), 42 U.S.C. � 7412(d) (1994).
427 CAA � 112(k)(3)(B), (C).
428 National Air Toxics Program: The Integrated Urban Strategy, 64 Fed. Reg. 38,706, 38,711 (July 19, 1999) [hereinafter Urban Strategy].
429 Id. at 38,706.
430 Id.
431 Id. at 38,708.
432 Id. at 38,708, n.7.
433 Toxics Symposium, supra note 374, at 1.
434 Urban Strategy, supra note 428, at 38,711.
435 Id.
436 Id.
437 Id.
438 Id. at 38,715.
439 Id. at 38,716.
440 This issue is being addressed in part with the promulgation of the new HAPs reporting scheme, found at Consolidated Emissions Reporting, 65 Fed. Reg. 33,268 (proposed May 23, 2000) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 51). The Urban Strategy discusses how to address this issue. See Urban Strategy, supra note 430, at 38,710.
441 Urban Strategy, supra note 428, at 38,722.
442 Id. at 38,723.
443 Toxics Symposium, supra note 374, at i; see also Urban Strategy, supra note 428, at 38,706.
444 Urban Strategy, supra note 428, at 38,723.
445 Id.
446 Id.; see also CAA � 112(k), 42 U.S.C. � 7412(k) (1994).
447 Residual Risk, supra note 278, at 14.
448 Id.
449 Id.; see also CAA � 112(l).
450 See CAA � 112 (1).
451 Id.
452 Id. � 112(l).
453 Id. � 112(l)(2).
454 Id. � 112(l)(5).
455 Id.
456 Id. � 112(l)(6).
457 Approval of State Programs and Delegation of Federal Authorities, 58 Fed. Reg. 62,262 (Nov. 26, 1993) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 63) [hereinafter Approval and Delegation].
458 Id.
459 Id.
460 Approval of State Programs and Delegation of Federal Authorities, 61 Fed. Reg. 36,295 (July 10, 1996) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 63).
461 Approval of State Programs and Delegation of Federal Authorities; Program Overview, 40 C.F.R. � 63.90 (2000).
462 Approval and Delegation, supra note 459, at 62,262.
463 40 C.F.R. � 63.90.
464 Regions Get Authority to Decide Whether State Toxics Rules Meet Federal Standards, Daily Env’t Rep. (BNA) A-2 (July 6, 1995).
465 Id.
466 Approval and Delegation, supra note 457, at 62,274.
467 Approval of State Programs and Delegation of Federal Authorities: Approval of State Requirements that Substitute for a Section 112 Rule, 40 C.F.R. � 63.93 (2000).
468 Id.
469 Memorandum from U.S. EPrA John S. Seitz, Director, OAQPS, Delegation of 40 CFR Part 63 General Provisions Authorities to State and Local Air Pollution Control Agencies, to Director Regions I-X 1 (July 10, 1998) (on file with author).
470 Id. at 3.
471 Id. at 7–9.
472 Amendments to the Approval of State Programs and Delegation of Federal Authorities, 65 Fed. Reg. 55,810 (Sept. 14, 2000) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pts. 9, 63).
473 Approval of State Programs and Delegation of Federal Authorities, 64 Fed. Reg. 1880, 1883 (Jan. 12, 1999) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 63). The changes made to section 112(l) revise the procedures and criteria for approving S/L measures by offering a range of options for demonstrating equivalence with the federal requirements and expectations of the approval process. See Amendments to the Approval of State Programs and Delegatio of Federal Authorities, 65 Fed. Reg. at 55,811. The greatest difference between the proposed rule and the final rule is the variety of enforceable mechanisms available under each equivalency option. Id.
474 Initial List of Categories of Sources Under Section 112(c)(1) of the CAA Amendments of 1990, 57 Fed. Reg. 31,576 (July 16, 1992).
475 CAA � 112(e)(5), 42 U.S.C. � 7412(e)(5) (1994).
476 Id. � 112(e)(1)–(5).
477 Coke oven batteries are regulated by emission standard. NESHAPs for Source Categories and for Coke Oven Batteries, 58 Fed. Reg. 57,898 (Oct. 27, 1993) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pts. 9, 63).
478 Initial List of Categories of Sources Under Section 112(c)(1) of the CAA Amendments of 1990, 57 Fed. Reg. at 31,576.
479 Second Report to Congress on the Status of the HAP Program, supra note 261, at 7.
480 NESHAPs: Revision of Source Category List and Schedule for Standards Under Section 112 of the CAA, 64 Fed. Reg. 63,025, 65,030 (Nov. 18, 1999).
481 Id.
482 See supra section III D.
483 CAA � 112(d)(2), 42 U.S.C. � 7412(d)(2) (1994).
484 Id. � 112(j); HAP: Proposed Regulations Governing Equivalent Emissions Limitations for HAP by Permit, 59 Fed. Reg. 37,778 (proposed July 13, 1993) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 63) [hereinafter HAP: Proposed Regulations].
485 Id.
486 HAPs: Regulations Governing Equivalent Emission Limitations by Permit, 59 Fed. Reg. 26,429 (May 20, 1994) (40 C.F.R. pts. 9, 63).
487 HAP: Proposed Regulations, supra note 486, at 37,778.
488 Id.; see generally Arnold W. Reitze, Jr. & Michael K. Stagg, Air Emission Standards and Guidelines Under the Clean Air Act for the Incineration of Hospital, Medical, and Infectious Waste, 28 Envtl. L. 791 (1998); Arnold W. Reitze, Jr. & Andrew N. Davis, Regulating Municipal Waste Incinerators Under the Clean Air Act: History, Technology and Risks, 21 B.C. Envtl. Aff. L. Rev. 1 (1993).
489 See U.S. Envitl. Protection Agency, U.S. Consumer Prod. Safety Comm’n, Pub. No. EPA-402-K93-007, Inside Story: A Guide to Indoor Air Quality, 24 (1995) available at http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubsinsidest.html (last visited Sept. 10, 2000) [hereinafter Inside Story]. “‘Asbestos’ includes chrysolite, amosite, crocidolite, tremolite asbestos, anthophyllite asbestos, actinolite asbestos, and any of these chemicals that has been chemically treated and/or altered.” 29 C.F.R. � 1915.1001 app. K (2000).
490 See U.S. EPA, Region 4, The Asbestos Informer, available at http://www.epa.gov/region04/air/asbestos/inform.htm (last visited Sept. 10, 2000) [hereinafter Asbestos Informer]; Gerald W. Boston, Toxic Apportionment: A Causation and Risk Contribution Model, 25 Envtl. L. 549, 551 n.2 (1995); see also Michael M. Stahl & David J. Kling, Asbestos in Buildings, Trial, Aug. 1990, at 28.
491 See Asbestos Informer, supra note 490.
492 For example, 9” x 9” vinyl floor tiles in pre-1980 homes contain asbestos about 90% of the time and 12” x 12” vinyl tiles about 50% of the time. See Andrew N. Davis & Paul E. Schaffman, The Home Environmental Sourcebook 45 (1996).
493 See id.; see also John D. Spengler, Sources and Concentrations of Indoor Air Pollution, in Indoor Air Pollution: A Health Perspective 52 (Jonathan M. Samet & John D. Spengler eds., The Johns Hopkins Univ. Press 1991).
494 See Inside Story, supra note 489.
495 See Stahl & Kling, supra note 490, at 28.
496See Asbestos Informer, supra note 490; see Spengler, supra note 493, at 52.
497 Univ. of Louisville, Dep’t of Envtl. Health and Safety, Health and Safety: Asbestos, available at http://www.louisville.edu/admin/dehs/hsasbes.htm (last visited Sept. 10, 2000).
498 See Asbestos Informer, supra note 490.
499 Asbestos may cause severe skin irritation. Laurence S. Kirsch, Behind Closed Doors: Indoor Air Pollution and Government Policy, 6 Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. 339, 357 (1982).
500 Not all fibers become lodged in the lungs; some are removed in the same manner as are other foreign particles. However, some fibers do remain in the lungs or migrate to the heart, blood, or lymphatic systems. Id. at 357 n.146. Asbestos may cause fibrosis of the heart cavity, which is the formation of fibrous bodies within the lungs, heart, heart cavity, or lung cavity. Id. at 357.
501 Id. at 356–57.
502 Id. at 357.
503 Andrew J. Harrison, Jr., An Analysis of the Health Effects, Economic Consequences and Legal Implications of Human Exposure to Indoor Air Pollutants, 37 S.D. L. Rev. 289, 312 (1991/1992); see also Asbestos Worker Protection; Asbestos-Containing Materials in Schools: Proposed Amendment, 59 Fed. Reg. 54,746, 54,750 (proposed Nov. 1, 1994) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 763).
504 See Asbestos Informer, supra note 490. Asbestosis is a condition resulting from scarring of the lungs with fibrous tissue as a result of the inhalation of asbestos fibers. See Stahl & Kling, supra note 490, at 28. Asbestosis is a leading cause of death for workers exposed to asbestos. However, some workers exposed to asbestos do not become impaired. See Kirsch, supra note 499, at 465 n.148.
505 See Davis & Schaffman, supra note 492, at 42.
506 Asbestosis and mesothelioma have been observed in people exposed in non-occupational settings. For example, they have been found in persons living in the same house as exposed workers. See Kirsch, supra note 499, at 357 n.143 (citing Anderson et al., Asbestosis Among Household Contacts of Asbestos Factory Workers, 330 Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci. 387 (1979)).
507 See Samet & Spengler, supra note 493, at 54.
508 See Stahl & Kling, supra note 490, at 29.
509 See Davis & Schaffman, supra note 492, at 41. “Friable” asbestos is asbestos that has “deteriorated or sustained physical injury such that the cohesion of the material . . . is inadequate, or which . . . lacks fiber cohesion.” Asbestos-Containing Materials in Schools, 52 Fed. Reg. 41,826, 41,830 (Oct. 30, 1987) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 763).
510 See Davis & Schaffman, supra note 492, at 41.
511 See id.
512 See Kirsch, supra note 499, at 356. For example, vinyl flooring will not release fibers when cleaned but may release fibers if sanded, drilled, filed, or scraped. See David & Schaffman, supra note 492, at 43–44.
513 Asbestos fibers are microscopic in size and are also very light. See Stahl & Kling, supra note 490, at 28.
514 Contact the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) (800/638-CPSC) or the EPA’s Asbestos Hotline (202/534–1404) for more asbestos information.
515 See Inside Story, supra note 489. A home asbestos inspection may cost $300 to $500, or an extra $100 to $300 if added onto a full home inspection. Lab analysis for asbestos costs $20 to $35 per sample. Id. Asbestos-abatement contractors typically charge $4 per square foot to remove vinyl flooring (tiles and linoleum), $4 to $5 per square foot to remove ceiling tiles, $10 to $15 per square foot to remove textured ceiling paint or plaster, up to $20 per linear foot to remove asbestos pipe insulation, and $30 per square foot to remove furnace insulation. The cost to hire a licensed contractor to remove and dispose of asbestos materials around a furnace, for example, could be $1000 to $2000. See Davis & Schaffman, supra note 492, at 42.
516 See Davis & Schaffman, supra note 492, at 43. With multi-family homes, for example, state and federal rules require landlords and building managers to survey for and repair or remove friable asbestos containing materials that could lead to exposure. See id. at 44.
517 Id. at 43; see also Inside Story, supra note 489.
518 See Inside Story, supra note 489; see also Davis & Schaffman, supra note 492, at 42. Unless proper precautions are instituted, the removal process may itself result in the release of fibers. See Kirsch, supra note 499, at 358. In addition, as