Translated into English,
with an Introduction and
Explanatory Notes
by
Allan P. Farrell, S.J.
University of Detroit
CONFERENCE OF MAJOR SUPERIORS OF JESUITS
1717 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D. C. 20036
1970
TABLE OF CONTENTS
The Ratio Atgue
Institutio Studiorum Societatis
Iesu, here translated into English, with explanatory
notes, was the result of many years of planning and ex-
perimentation. Into its making went the best efforts
of a group of brilliant administrators and teachers,
the manifold influence of Renaissance theory and prac-
tice, particularly the influence of the University of
Paris, and the practical wisdom gained from prolonged
tests in a hundred Jesuit colleges in many countries.
Its progenitors were Father Jerome Nadal’s 1551 plan
for the college at Messina in Sicily, his later plan
called Ordo Studiorum, the Fourth Part of the Jesuit
Constitutions, written by Ignatius of Loyola, and the
substantial De Ratione et Ordine Studiorum Collegii
Romani of Father James Ledesma. The Ratio was first
printed for private review in 1586, revised in 1591,
and given final form and official sanction in 1599.
A more modern experimental edition was published in
1832, but was never revised or officially approved.
Hence, when historians of education write about Jesuit
education, they invariably refer to the official Ratio
Studiorum of 1599: the Order and Method of Studies in
the Society of Jesus.
An English translation
of this 1599 edition, by
A. R. Ball, was published in 1933 in the McGraw-Hill
Education Classics under the title Saint Ignatius and
the Ratio Studiorum, and edited by E. A. Fitzpatrick.
However, that publication has been out of print for
nearly thirty years, and is seldom to be found even in
university libraries.
The translation presented
here is completely new,
based on the original text of 1599 and on G. M. Pachtler’s
reprint, which is accompanied by a German translation,
in Ratio Studiorum et Institutiones Scholasticae Soc. J.
This work is to be found in Volume II of the series
Monumenta Germaniae Paedagogica (Berlin: A. Hofmann,
1887), pp. 234-481.
We should say here
that Jesuit education has
deserved a more accurate and impartial record in the
history of education than is usually accorded it in
most textbook histories. The generally unfavorable
judgment is owing in large measure to the fact that
earlier historians of education were unduly influ-
enced in their account of Western education by one
of the most thoroughly iased critics of the Jesuit
system, Gabriel Comparayé in his two-volume Histoire
Critique des Doctrines de l’Éducation en France depuis
le Seizième Siècle, Paris, 1879, and translated into
English by W. H. Payne, under the title of History
of Pedagogy, London, 1900. A more general explana-
tion is that the history of Jesuit education has been
based on second-hand sources, often borrowed by one
author from another, rather than on an acquaintance
with available original documents, such as the Spir-
itual Exercises, the Fourth Part of the Constitutions
and the Ratio Studiorum.
A notable exception
is Robert R. Rusk’s The
Doctrines of the Great Educators, revised and en-
larged, Macmillan, 1957. In
his chapter on Loyola
(Ignatius of Loyola, Jesuit founder), Rusk gives am-
ple evidence of familiarity not only with the docu-
ments mentioned above, but with complementary docu-
ments and studies, such as those of Jouvancy, Petavius,
Pachtler, Corcoran, Charmot,
Hughes, Schwickerath,
and Broderick. He quotes liberally from the Fourth
Part of the Constitutions and the Ratio Studiorum,
often, but not exclusively, availing himself of the
English translations in St. Ignatius and the Ratio
Studiorum, edited by E. A. Fitzpatrick. Worthy of
special notice is Rusk’s thoroughgoing analysis and
commentary on both the Constitutions and the several
editions of the Ratio. Toward the end of his analy-
sis (p. 81), he states:
As more criticism than study has been de-
voted to this system by writers on the his-
tory of education, it is advisable inciden-
tally to enumerate some of the topics in
regard to which the Jesuits have anticipated
modern practice, and by implication to reply
to the unfounded criticisms of these writers.
ii
Rusk then discusses
eight contributions which he
thinks that the Jesuits have made to educational the-
ory. First, they provided education with a uniform
and universal method. Second, Jesuit teachers, far
from being subordinated to method, played a principal
role in the system and were thoroughly trained for it.
Third, though from the beginning the Latin and Greek
classics were predominant in the curriculum, the use
of the mother tongue, the principles of mathematics,
and the methods of natural science, were given their
proper place when they proved to be of permanent value.
Fourth, "in retaining the drama as an educational in-
strument, the Jesuits anticipated the modern movement
represented by what is termed the dramatic method of
teaching history." Fifth, "in insisting on the speak-
ing of Latin they likewise anticipated the direct meth-
od of teaching the classics." Sixth, the Jesuits sub-
stituted supervision for compulsion and dissociated
punishment from teaching. Seventh, by promoting abler
students after only half a session in a grade, they
introduced a procedure now adopted by a number of mod-
ern school systems. Eighth, in Sacramental Confession
and Communion "the Society possesses powerful instru-
ments for the moral and religious education of the
pupil."
The Jesuit schools,
whose pedagogical princi-
ples Rusk investigated so thoroughly, comprised a
large segment of European scholastic institutions.
Their growth between 1548 and 1773 was phenomenal.
From 1548, when the first Jesuit school was founded
at Messina in Sicily, to 1556, when Ignatius of Loyola,
the Jesuit founder and general, died, thirty-three
schools had been opened and six more were ready to
open. The countries then represented were Sicily,
Italy, Spain, Portugal, Austria, Bohemia, France and
Germany. By 1581 the number of schools had increased
to 150. When the official Ratio of 1599 was promul-
gated, there were 245 schools. This number rose to
441 in 1626, to 669 in 1749. At the latter date, in
France alone, there were ninety-two schools, enrolling
some 40,000 pupils. Meanwhile, the Jesuit system had
spread from Europe to India, Cuba, Mexico, and the
Philippines.
iii
During these years
of growth in the number of
schools, enrollments also increased sharply. For
example, official records show:
| Country | School | Year | Enrollment |
| Portugal | Evora | 1585 | 1,400 |
| " | Lisbon | 1586 | 1,800 |
| " | Coimbra | 1582 | 1,600 |
| France | Billom | 1563 | 1,600 |
| " | Clermont | 1586 | 1,500 |
| Germany | Cologne | 1581 | 1,000 |
| " | Treves | 1581 | 1,000 |
| Italy | Roman College | 1567 | 1,000 |
| 1594 | 1,500 |
Jesuit schools in smaller towns averaged between 500
and 800, in the cities between 800 and 1,500. The
majority were secondary schools, but a good many of
them gradually added the faculty of arts, which, by
incorporating the classes of Humanities and Rhetoric,
was equivalent to the modern College of Arts and Sci-
ences. At that time there were few Jesuit universi-
ties. Four may be mentioned: in Spain, the univer-
sities of Gandia and of Coimbra were founded in 1549
and 1551 respectively, the Roman College in 1551, and
in France the University of Pont-a-Mousson in 1575.
It is a fair question
to ask whether the gradu-
ates of these many schools and colleges distinguished
themselves in literature, science, mathematics, and
the learned professions. Gilbert Highet, who quali-
fied himself to answer the question by stating, "I
am not a Jesuit myself, or even a Roman Catholic,"
writes:
The success of Jesuit education is proved
by its graduates. It produced, first, a long
list of wise and learned Jesuit preachers,
iv
writers, philosophers, and scientists. Yet if
it had bred nothing but Jesuits, it would be
less important. Its value is that it proved
the worth of its principles by developing a
large number of widely different men of vast
talent: Corneille the tragedian, Descartes
the philosopher and mathematician, Bossuet and
Bourdaloue the orators, Moliere the comedian,
d’Urfè the romantic novelist, Montesquieu the
political philosopher, Voltaire the philosopher
and critic, who although he is regarded by the
Jesuits as a bad pupil is still not an unworthy
representative of their ability to train gifted
minds. The Art of Teaching, New York, Vintage
Books, 1955, pp. 198-199.
Highet could have extended
his list of noted Jesuit alum-
ni by including Goldone the creator of modern Italian
comedy, Torquato Tasso the Italian poet and author of
Jerusalem Delivered, and Calderon de la Barca, the Span-
ish dramatist and poet. Father Porée, for long profes-
sor of rhetoric at Louis-Le-Grand in Paris, lived to
see nineteen of his former pupils inducted into the
French Academy.
The continuity of Jesuit
educational history was
rudely broken on August 16, 1773, when Pope Clement XIV
issued a Brief of Suppression of the Society of Jesus.
The abolition of the Jesuit Order meant the closing of
546 schools in Europe and 123 schools in missionary ter-
ritories chiefly in Hispanic America and in India.
Frederick II of Prussia and Catherine II in White Russia
nullified the Brief of Suppression. Catherine asked the
Jesuits to continue their teaching. Thus the small band
of 200 Jesuits maintained their schools at Polotzk,
Onsza, Vitepsk, and Dunabourg. In 1804, at King Ferdi-
nand’s request, Pope Pius VII reinstated the Jesuits in
the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Between 1804 and 1814
several groups of former Jesuits in England, the United
States, France, and Ireland were permitted to affiliate
with the surviving Society in White Russia. The final
step was taken by Pope Pius VII when on August 7, 1814
he restored the Society of Jesus to its former status as
an Order in the universal Church, with all the rights,
privileges, and constitutions hitherto granted and ap-
proved.
v
At that date there
were in existence five Jesuit
schools in White Russia, four in the Two Sicilies, one
in the United States (Georgetown), and a few more in
France. Progress in reviving the educational aposto-
late was exceedingly slow. The principal reasons were
the almost complete loss of property, which had been
confiscated by the States, the growing state control
of education in most European countries, and the loss
of large numbers of former Jesuits who had died or
grown old or assumed other occupations. Consequently
it was necessary for the Society to start building up
its members and its schools almost from scratch. By
1833 it had charge of only forty-five schools and seven-
teen seminaries. Its total membership was 2,495. It
was not until 1930 that the membership had built up
to what it had been prior to the suppression.
From 1930 on, however,
the "new" Society of Jesus
began to achieve far-reaching developments in its mis-
sionary and educational activities. First, the number
of Jesuits consistently grew: to 26,293 in 1940, to
30,578 in 1950, and to 34,687 in 1960. Second, a sta-
tistical analysis by William J. Mehok, S.J., "Jesuit
Schools of the World, 1961," in the Jesuit Educational
Quarterly, XXV, June, 1962, pp. 42-56, revealed that
in 1960 there were 4,059 Jesuit schools throughout the
world, with a total enrollment of 938,436. Father Mehok
then presented a geographical analysis of these statis-
tics as follows: In Africa there were 1,009 Jesuit
schools and 223,692 pupils, in Asia and Oceania 1,379
schools and 236,661 pupils, in North America 691 schools
and 257,777 pupils, in South America 378 schools and
87,991 pupils, in Europe 602 schools and 131,315 pupils.
Noteworthy in the statistics is
the large number
of elementary schools which the Jesuits are conducting
today. According to the Ignatian Constitutions, Jesuits
were forbidden to open elementary schools or supply
teachers for them because of the lack of sufficient man-
power. But that prohibition referred to Europe, not to
foreign missions; for from the beginning it was a Jesuit
principle that schools were to be opened as soon and as
widely as possible in all missionary territories. In
modern times the remarkable growth of Jesuit missions
vi
in Africa, Asia, and
even in Oceania has necessitated
the opening of very many mission schools, which begin
at the elementary or elementary-secondary level. This
does not mean that secondary schools, colleges and uni-
versities are not also growing and spreading, particu-
larly in India, the Philippines, various countries of
South America, and most notably in the United States,
where in 1968 there were fifty-five high schools with
37,811 students and twenty-eight colleges and univer-
sities with 150,884.
A question that may
profitably be raised at this
point is where the official Ratio Studiorum of 1599
fits into the new age of the Society of Jesus. Before
attempting to answer that question, it should be noted
that the Ratio of 1599 rendered immediate and valuable
service for its own era by successfully guiding and gov-
erning hundreds of Jesuit schools in Europe, and not a
few in the Latin American colonies and in the Asiatic
provinces, for a hundred and fifty years. Moreover,
since the present Jesuit system takes its origins from
1599, it cannot be dismissed as wholly unrelated to
our more complex situation today. It would be illogi-
cal, however, to conclude that merely updating the old
Ratio would answer the needs of the twentieth century.
Such an updating was attempted in the experimental re-
vision of 1832, but after it was carefully examined by
the Jesuits of that time it was found to be inadequate.
In fact, it is very doubtful that a modern-day official
Ratio could be constructed, so various are the condi-
tions and requirements in the many countries in which
Jesuits are conducting schools.
We should now return
to the question of what per-
tinence the Ratio may have for the new age of the So-
ciety of Jesus. A modern Jesuit author approaches an
answer when he states that “it may be possible to dis-
engage from the documentary sources of the Jesuit edu-
cational tradition certain key-categories or master
themes, rudimentary perhaps or barely implicit, which
constitute a portion of Christian educational theory
and retain significance for places, persons and times
very different from those of 1599." John W. Donohue,
S.J., Jesuit Education (Fordham University Press, 1963),
p. 69. In another place he says: "For Jesuit school-
vii
men, however, the experience
and accumulated wisdom
of their predecessors is wonderfully instructive for
their own work" (ibid., p. 28). And again: "Certain
principles of sixteenth-century Jesuit education may
be applied to our contemporary school actualities but
they will usually require transposition into a new key"
(ibid., p. 121).
These statements warn
us not to expect too much
from the past. Yet, Father Donohue comes nearer, on
occasion, to a more liberal recognition of traditional
principles and practices which have relevance for our
time. For instance, the rhetorical ideal of "Ciceronian
verbal grace" has a wider aim that "rests on the convic-
tion that the truly human man must possess both wisdom
and eloquence; must know something and be able to say
what he knows; must be able to think and to communicate”
(ibid., p. 70). Another instance: “It is therefore
quite defensible to conclude that developing the arts
of communication and eloquentia perfecta are still es-
sential tasks of the secondary school even though the
form and content of eloquence changes from epoch to
epoch and nation to nation” (ibid., p. 121).
Father Donohue then
devotes considerable space
to describing the prelection, "the characteristic
tool" for bringing students to an understanding of the
materials and aims of study. After applying the pre-
lection to the classical authors and to philosophy, he
concludes: "It is clear that the basic pattern and
purpose of the prelection can and ought to be adapted
to all teaching and any subject. It is only too easy,
unfortunately, to neglect this work of preparing stu-
dents for individual study since it is always easier
to tell them what than to teach them how” (ibid.,
pp.
150-151).
Finally, it must suffice
to summarize or list a
number of pedagogical principles derived from the
Ratio, which, with necessary adaptation, apply to Jes-
uit teaching everywhere. The aim of the prelection is
understanding. "After understanding," says Father
Donohue, "mastery is to be sought and this means stu-
dent activity--exercise and more exercise." The ac-
viii
tivity was diversified:
disputations, debates, repe-
titions that were held daily, weekly, monthly and annu-
ally, written exercises in imitation of the author
being read, public correction of the exercises, ori-
ginal essays in the upper grades. But since success-
ful action calls for motivation, the Jesuits provided
contests within and between classes, awards, plays and
pageants, and academies. In sum, writes Father Donohue,
All these pedagogical principles are, then,
closely linked together. The learning product
sought is genuine growth which is conceived in
terms of abiding habits and skills. Habits are
generated not simply by understanding facts or
procedures but mastery which makes them one’s
own and at hand for ready use. Mastery is the
product of continual intellectual effort and
exercise but fruitful effort of this sort is
impossible without adequate motivation and a
human milieu (ibid., pp. 150-153).
Thus the answer to
the question of what relevance
the Ratio of 1599 has for our age would seem to be that
it retains “significance for places, persons and times
very different from 1599.”
But what were the sources
of the Ratio itself?
When the early Jesuit schools began to spread from
Italy, Spain and Portugal to France and Germany, claims
were made by several headmasters of rival schools, espe-
cially by Johann Sturm, headmaster at Strassburg, that
the Jesuits had copied their pedagogical practices. As
a matter of fact, however, when the manuscript of Quin-
tilian’s Institutio Oratoria was discovered at St. Gall
by the humanist Poggio in 1410, Quintilian soon became
the favorite source of most of the school programs in
the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries--at
Liege, Strassburg and elsewhere. This was prior to the
opening of the first Jesuit school. Ignatius of Loyola
and his early followers, on the other hand, took as
their chief authority the University of Paris, their
Alma Mater. Their preference for Paris resulted from
their interest, at that time, in the practice rather
than in the theory of education. The University of
Paris undoubtedly absorbed a great deal of its pedagogy
ix
from Quintilian or from
humanist adaptations of Quin-
tilian, but it had reduced these ideas to order and
to practice. The early Jesuits were engaged in the
actual labor of the classroom and hence were looking
for specific and serviceable pedagogical guidance.
The success of their efficient and carefully organized
educational code, embodied eventually in the Ratio of
1599, may best be explained by acknowledging that they
did not merely resurrect and restore old ideas, but
impregnated them with their own distinctive spirit
and purpose, and subjected them to prolonged tests
based on personal knowledge and practical experience.
Though the result reflects the multiple influence of
other systems, it was not a slavish imitation of either
the University of Paris or of Quintilian.
There are four principal
areas contained in the
Ratio Studiorum, namely, administration, curriculum,
method, and discipline. It begins with administration
by defining the function, interrelation, and duties of
such officials as the provincial, rector and prefects
of studies. It outlines a curriculum by placing in
their proper sequence and gradation courses of study
in theology, philosophy and the humanities. It sets
forth in detail a method of conducting lessons and
exercises in the classroom. It provides for disci-
pline by fixing for the students norms of conduct,
regularity and good order.
The following detailed
analysis of the Ratio,
according to sets of rules, will illustrate these four
main divisions.
Allan P. Farrell, S.J.
July 21, 1970
x
|
An Analysis
of the Ratio Studiorum of 1599
|
|
| I. A. Rules
of the Provincial (1-40) |
|
| B. Rules of the Rector (1-24) | |
|
* * * * *
|
|
| II. C. Rules of the Prefect of | M. Rules for the Scholastics of |
| Studies (1-30) | the Society (1-11) |
| D. Common Rules of the Professors | N. Instruction for Those Engaged |
| of the Higher Faculties (1-20) | in the Two-Year Review of |
| E. Special Rules for Professors | Theology (1-14) |
| the Higher Faculties | O. Rules for the Teacher's As- |
| a) Scripture (1-20) | sistant of Beadle (1-7) |
| b) Hebrew (1-5) | Q. Rules for the Academies (cf. below): |
| c) Theology (1-14) | a) General Rules (1-12) |
| d) Cases of Conscience (1-10) | b) Rules of the Prefect (1-5) |
| F. Rules of the Professor of Philo- | c) Academy of Theology and |
| sophy: | Philosophy (1-11) |
| a) General Rules (1-8) | d) Moderator of the Academy |
| b) Courses, Texts, etc. (9-20) | (1-4) |
| c) Moral Philosphy (1-4) | |
| d) Mathematics (1-3) | |
|
*
* * * *
|
|
| III. G. Rules of the Prefect of Lower | P. Rules for Extern Students (1-15) |
| Studies (1-50) | Q. Rules for the Academies (cont’d): |
| H. Rules for the Written Examina- | e) Academy of Rhetoric and |
| tions (1—1l) | Humanities (1—7) |
| J. Laws for Prizes (1-13) | f) Academy of Grammar Students |
| K. Common Rules for the Teachers of | (1-8) |
| the Lower Classes (1-50) | |
| L. Special Rules for the Teachers | |
| of the Lower Classes: | |
| a) Rhetoric (1—20) | |
| b) Humanities (1-10) | |
| c) Grammar I (1—10) | |
| d) Grammar II (1-10) | |
| e) Grammar III (1—9) | |
xi
A comprehensive program
for our course of studies
began to take shape about fourteen years ago. Work on
it has now been completed and copies of its final form
are being sent to the various provinces of the Society.
On account of its great
potential value for our
schools, Our Very Reverend Father General had hoped
that the program would have been completed and imple-
mented long before now. This, however, proved to be
impossible. The undertaking was so ambitious and was
fraught with so many problems that it was felt to be
unwise to put it in force until the provinces would
have an opportunity to study its implications and sug-
gest improvements. Father General decided that it
would never do to impose a set of regulations on the
whole Society until every effort had been made to in-
sure willing acceptance on the part of all concerned.
The six priests to
whom the task of formulating
a program of studies was entrusted spent long and ardu-
ous years in research and discussion. They finally
completed their work, and the results were forwarded
to all provinces of the Society to be weighed and eval-
uated by our teachers and educational
experts. These
men were requested to examine the document for the pur-
pose of noting and eliminating defects or of introduc-
ing improvements. They were then to make a report
expressing their views on the plan as a whole and to
explain the principles which supported these views.
All of the provinces
cooperated eagerly and
resolutely, and forwarded their criticisms and their
suggestions to Rome. There the chief professors of
the Roman College and a special committee of three
Fathers edited these reports and submitted their find-
ings to Father General. In conference with the Fathers
Assistant, he carefully scrutinized the new version of
the plan of studies, approved it, and forwarded copies
xii
to all the provinces
with orders that it was to be
scrupulously followed.
Father General reminded
the Provincials that
since new procedures to be reliable, must be tested
in the light of actual experience, they should note the
day-by-day results of the new plan and make a report to
Rome. He himself would then be in a position to put
the finishing touches to the work and send it out with
the stamp of his final approval.
When the Provincials
came to Rome for the Fifth
General Congregation, they brought with them the
memoranda of defects which daily experience in the
classroom had detected in the second draft of the Ratio.
The chief complaint was that the new plan was too cum-
bersome. Hence it was decided to face the huge task
of reviewing the whole project. This required that
the members of the Roman committee study the reasoning
which prompted the various suggestions, that they pon-
der well what decision to make in each instance, and
finally that they endeavor to reduce the whole docu-
ment to smaller and more manageable dimensions. Fin-
ally the task was completed and we have good reason to
hope that the final version will meet with the approval
of all.
This revised edition
of the Ratio which is now
being sent out is to supersede all previous experimen-
tal editions and is to be followed faithfully by all
members of the Society. It is therefore incumbent on
all our teachers to carry out all its provisions. I
am quite convinced that if the members of our Society
realize how much this project means to our Father Gen-
eral, they will comply cheerfully with his wishes.
Since responsibility
for the success of this
Ratio Studiorum lies squarely on the shoulders of su-
periors, Father General urges them to make every effort
to secure from their subjects ready and complete dedi-
cation to this program which breathes the spirit of
our Constitutions and promises to be of untold advan-
tage to our students.
|
Rome
|
James Dominic |
| January 8, 1599 | Secretary |
xiii
RULES OF THE PROVINCIAL 1
1. It is the principal ministry of the Society
of Jesus to educate youth in every branch of knowledge
that is in keeping with its Institute. The aim of our
educational program is to lead men to the knowledge
and love of our Creator and Redeemer.2 The provincial
should therefore make every effort to ensure that the
various curricula in our schools produce the results
which our vocation demands of us.
2. He should not only
strongly recommend this
work to the rector, but he should assign to him as pre-
fect of studies a man thoroughly versed in literature*
and possessed of the enthusiasm and good judgment which
such an office requires. The function of the prefect
will be to assist the rector in organizing and super-
vising the course of studies. He is to have jurisdic-
tion over all professors and students. This applies
not only to students who dwell in the main building
but also to those who live in various residence halls.
The supervisors of these residence halls are also sub-
ject to the authority of the prefect in all matters
which pertain to studies.
3. If, however, owing
to the size of the school
and its varied arrangement of classes, one prefect
does not seem sufficient for the proper management of
the school, the provincial should appoint a second,
subordinate to the general prefect, to direct the
lower studies. And should circumstances require it,
let him appoint a third prefect to preside over disci-
pline.
4. Long before the
opening of classes the pro-
vincial should make a careful inventory of his avail-
able teachers. He should classify them according to
________________________
* The 1832 Ratio reads "literature and the sciences."
2
ability, devotedness, and interest in the progress of
students, and this not only in class work but in all
academic achievement.
5. Great attention
should be given to promoting
the study of Sacred Scripture. The provincial will do
this most effectively if he chooses for this field men
who are not only proficient in languages (a prerequi-
site), but are also well versed in theology and other
sciences, in history and allied branches of learning,
and as far as possible, practiced in the arts of com-
munication.3
6. Students of theology
are to attend the course
in Sacred Scripture for two years, usually in the sec-
ond and third year of theology. Where there are two
professors of theology, the lectures are to be given
daily for a forty-five minute period; where there are
three professors, a shorter daily lecture may be given,
or a longer lecture every other day.
7. The class in Hebrew
should if possible be
taught by the professor of Holy Scripture. At least
the teacher should be a good theologian. It is de-
sirable that this man be proficient in Greek, because
it is the language of the New Testament and of the
Septuagint. Similarly he should have command of the
Caldaic and Syriac languages because of their impor-
tance in the exegesis of many passages in the Canoni-
cal Books.4
8. Students of theology
are to pursue the study
of Hebrew for a year, usually in the second or third
year of theology. Only someone judged to be entirely
unfit for this study should be exempt from it. More-
over, as the Constitutions direct, the provincial ought
to decide who are to be chosen for advanced studies in
Hebrew and have them devote additional time to it dur-
ing the two years prescribed for the review of theolo-
gy. When possible, they should be helped by means of
a special academy or seminar, at least during the vaca-
tions.
9. #1. The provincial
should see to it that the
curriculum in theology is completed in four years, as
3
prescribed by the Constitutions. It should be taught
by two regular professors, or, if this is impossible,
by three, depending on the practice in the several
provinces. If there are three professors, the third
lecture should be given on moral theology, or should
explicitly and thoroughly cover
moral questions which
teachers of dogmatic theology are wont to touch upon
only lightly if at all. Our scholastics are to attend
the moral course for two years and the course in Sacred
Scripture for another two years.
#2. The provincial
is to be especially careful
that no one be appointed to teach theology who is not
well disposed to the teaching of St. Thomas. Those
who do not approve of his doctrine or take little in-
terest in it, should not be allowed to teach theology.
10. At the beginning
of the fourth year of the-
ology, after taking counsel with the rector, the pre-
fect of studies, the professors and his own consultors,
the provincial should select some of our scholastics
for a biennium of uninterrupted private study and re-
view, as prescribed in the Constitutions. Those se-
lected must be solidly grounded in virtue and dis-
tinguished for their talent. During this biennium
(concerning which a special instruction will be given
in another place)5 public defenses may be held, at the
superior’s discretion, and where it is the custom some
may be advanced, on the authority of the general, to
the doctor’s or master’s degree.
11. Where it is customary
to confer degrees
publicly, the Constitutions are to be strictly adhered
to. No one shall be promoted unless he has defended
questions taken not only from theology but also from
important parts of Sacred Scripture. The ceremonies
accompanying the conferring of degrees may follow local
practice so long as this does not conflict with the
Constitutions.
12. In a college where
there is a scholasticate
of the Society,6 the provincial should appoint two
professors who together will explain over a two-year
period the subject matter of moral theology. If only
one professor is appointed, he should give two lectures
daily.
4
13. Twice a week in professed houses7 and once
or twice a week in the colleges, as the provincial may
decide, priests of the Society are to hold a discus-
sion of cases of conscience. This is to be done whe-
ther there are lectures on moral theology in these
colleges or not. One of the priests, appointed by the
provincial as well qualified, should act as moderator.
He should read and follow the rules laid down for the
professor of moral theology which govern the procedures
of this discussion.
14. These cases of
conscience are also to be
held in the major colleges, particularly for all stu-
dents of theology, whether there be two professors of
moral theology, or only one, or none at all. This dis-
cussion, however, is to take place only once a week.
15. Students of moral
theology and priests who
regularly or occasionally hear confessions are not to
be exempt from these discussions. An exception is to
be made for professors of theology and philosophy and
others whom the superior may see fit to excuse. The
superior himself should seldom be absent and then only
for serious reasons.
16. Save in case of
urgent need, professors of
philosophy must have completed both the course in the-
ology and the graduate biennium so that their teaching
may have a firmer foundation and better prepare the
mind for theology. Teachers of philosophy who show
themselves too inclined toward new doctrines or too
liberal in their views should certainly be removed
from teaching.
17. The curriculum
in philosophy should be com-
pleted in three years but not in a shorter time for our
scholastics. Where there are extern students8 only,
the length of the course may be left to the provincial’s
judgment, but wherever possible one group of students
should complete the course and another group begin it
each year.
18. The length of time
to be given to the study
of humanities and rhetoric cannot be strictly deter-
mined. It belongs to the superior to decide how much
5
time each student should devote to these subjects.
Still, none of our scholastics is to be sent to philo-
sophy before he has devoted two years to the study of
rhetoric, unless he be judged excused by reason of age
or aptitude or other impediment. But if any have such
ability as to give promise of becoming eminent in these
literary studies, it might be profitable for them to
spend a third year in laying a more solid foundation.
19. #1. In the course
of their philosophical
studies our students are to be thoroughly examined
toward the end of each year by appointed examiners.
The rector, and if possible even the provincial, should
be present. No one is to be advanced from the first to
the second year, nor from the second to the third, un-
less he has shown moderate ability in understanding the
subject matter of the lectures and is able to demon-
strate this understanding by proofs. To be promoted
to the curriculum in scholastic theology, that is, to
the four-year course, he must surpass mediocrity by
being able to defend his knowledge against objections.
In an exceptional case, an individual who does not
measure up to this latter standard, but has given evi-
dence of exceptional gifts for governing or for preach-
ing, may on this account be promoted by the provincial
to the course in scholastic theology; but the provin-
cial has no authority to make an exception for any
other reason.
#2. In this matter
of making exceptions, which
is of great moment, and so is to be determined only
after careful thought for God’s greater glory, the
provincial should pay special attention to rules forty-
nine and fifty-six of his office,10 and should give
greatest weight to the character and personality of
the person in question.
#3. Students of theology
should likewise be ex-
amined toward the end of each year. No one is to be
advanced to the next year who has not in the judgment
of the examiners achieved better than average success.
Exception may be made for those who do not measure up
to this standard but who possess outstanding talents
of another kind, as noted above.
6
#4. If in the course of studies any are found
to be unsuited for philosophy or theology, they should
be assigned either to the study of moral theology or
to teaching,11 as the provincial judges best.
#5. Any who before
entering our Society have com-
pleted the entire course of philosophy, or a part of it,
or even a part of theology, are similarly to be tested
by examination to determine their status in these stud-
ies.
#6. In the examinations
which determine whether
students of philosophy and theology are to advance to
the next higher year, the examiners are to vote in se-
cret. The decisions of the examiners, together with
their written ballots, are to be recorded in a book
designed for this purpose. The examiners are to keep
the results of the examinations secret.
#7. Should a student
obtain only a mediocre
grade in the final philosophy examination or in the
annual examinations in theology, the decision of the
examiners is to stand. If, however, in the judgment
of the provincial’s consultors and other experienced
men (whose advice is to be sought) the student pos-
sesses special qualifications for governing or for
preaching, it is for the provincial to determine what
action is to be taken for the greater glory of God and
the good of our Society. If he decides that the stu-
dent in question is not to continue his studies, he
should note it in the book of records indicated above.
#8. The provincial,
together with his consultors
and other competent men who are acquainted with the
students and whose judgment can be relied upon, should
reflect carefully on what particular ability for gov-
erning or for preaching can be expected of those who
wish to enter the four-year course of theology, al-
though they have demonstrated only passable competence
in philosophy. The same procedure should be followed
in regard to those who wish to remain in the four-year
course of theology despite their mediocre progress.
#9. The provincial
should not stretch his au-
thority in granting concessions to those whose lack
7
of humility, piety, and self-denial seem to mark them
as poor risks.
#10. Toward the end
of the fourth year of theo-
logical studies a final examination of at least two
hours shall be given to each student for the purpose
of determining whether or not he may be advanced to
the "profession."12 The subject matter of this
exam-
ination shall consist of topics chosen from the princi-
pal divisions of philosophy and theology. To qualify
for the "profession," the candidate must be judged
fully capable of teaching both philosophy and theology.
Should an individual fall short of this standard, but
possess such a notable gift for governing or preaching
that it should be taken into account, the case must be
referred to the general. It is also for the general
to decide when exceptions are to be made in virtue of
the twenty-ninth decree of the sixth General Congrega-
tion for any who may have extraordinary talent for the
humanistic studies or for the Indian languages.13
#11. In the examination
to determine who are
qualified to receive the profession of four vows, the
votes shall be cast in secret. Doubtful votes are to
be disregarded. The examiners are bound by oath not
only to keep their votes secret but also to base their
decision impartially on the knowledge and proficiency
of those being examined.
#12. Each examiner
shall send his signed vote
directly to the provincial and to the general. That
addressed to the provincial is to be marked "Personal."
The provincial is to record the votes, omitting the
names of the examiners, in a book kept for that purpose.
He should preserve such secrecy in this matter that not
even his own assistant will know how the examiners
voted, and hence he should burn the letters of the
examiners as soon as he has recorded their votes.
#13. In every seminary,
both for philosophy
and for theology, there should be at least four examiners
appointed by the general to conduct the examinations
described above. Wherever it is possible these exam-
iners should be other than the professors who taught
8
those who are to be examined. If one of the examiners
dies or is prevented from being present at the exam-
inations, the provincial is to appoint others who will
be bound by the same regulations of the oath with re-
spect to the final examination.
#14. In regard to those
who enter the Society
with the degree of Doctor of Laws and Doctor of Canon
Law, the prescriptions of the Constitutions, Part V,
Ch. II, no. 2, B, are to be observed.14 If any enter
with the degree of Doctor of Theology and there is any
doubt about their proficiency, they are to be examined
like the rest. Unless they demonstrate more than or-
dinary ability, they are not to be admitted to the pro-
fession of the four vows.
20. In the second year
of philosophical study
all students are to attend a course in mathematics for
a period of about forty-five minutes daily. Those who
show an aptitude and bent for this discipline should be
given an opportunity to pursue it further under private
instruction after completing the general course.
21. #1. The number
of grades in the lower stud-
ies (omitting the primary grades for reasons given in
the Constitutions, Fourth Part, Ch. XII, C.)15 is not
to exceed five, one in rhetoric, one in humanities, and
three in grammar.
#2. These grades are
to be so precisely articu-
lated as to preclude being combined or increased in
number. Besides, to increase their number would entail
an unnecessary addition of teachers and prolong the time
required for completing these studies.
#3. If there are fewer
than five classes, the
five grades are not to be altered; rather one class may
have two sections, each corresponding to one of the five
grades, in the manner prescribed in the eighth rule of
the Prefect of Lower Studies.
#4. Whenever there
are fewer than five classes,
the higher grades (rhetoric and humanities) should be
retained as far as possible and the lower grades dropped.
9
#5. When it is said that there should be only
three grammar classes and not more than a total of five
lower classes, this is to be understood as referring,
not to the number of classes and teachers, but rather
to the number of grades, as has just been described.
For if the number of pupils is too large for one teach-
er to handle, the class may be divided (with the gen-
eral’s permission) into two sections, but in such a
way that each will have the same grade, lessons, method,
and time schedule.
#6. This sectioning
of classes, however, need
not be carried put except in places where the Society’s
complete course of studies is offered, or where the
conditions in the founding charter of the school demand
it; otherwise the Society may become unduly burdened.
22. In order to preserve
a knowledge and appre-
ciation of the classical literatures and to provide a
reserve of men for teaching them, the provincial should
endeavor to have in his province at least two or three
who are eminent in these literatures and in eloquence.
He will accomplish this by setting aside for special
studies a few who have a gift and love for these disci-
plines, and who have satisfactorily completed the other
studies of the Society. By their devoted efforts these
men will be able in turn to create a class of good
teachers who will spread throughout a province.
23. The provincial
shall see to it that our
teachers use the grammar of Emmanuel Alvarez.16 If in
some of our schools it is thought that his method is
too detailed and refined for the boys to master, the
teachers should use the Roman grammar or, with the gen-
eral’s approval, prepare a similar grammar, preserving,
however, all the force and exactness of the precepts of
Alvarez.
24. Provision should be made to have as many
permanent teachers of grammar and rhetoric as possible.
This can be done if the provincial assigns to this work
men who have completed their moral and dogmatic theology
and who in his judgment are especially qualified for
this type of work. He should encourage them to devote
themselves entirely to this apostolate which is so bene-
ficial in the service of God.
10
25. It will be advantageous to receive into the
Society men who seem specially fitted for such work,
and who, either on account of their age or aptitude,
will not be able to make progress in more abstruse stud-
ies. The condition of their admission will be their
willingness to dedicate their whole life to the service
of God by teaching grammar or the humanities. The pro-
vincial should note this fact in his record book. Either
prior to teaching or after having taught for some years,
as seems better, they may study moral theology, be or-
dained priests, and then return to this same work. They
are not to be removed from it without serious reason and
the advice of others. Occasionally, however, the pro-
vincial may decide that because of fatigue they should
have a change from this occupation for a year or two.
26. By that same token,
the provincial is not to
excuse our scholastics from teaching grammar or humani-
ties,17 unless on account of age or other reasons dif-
ferent arrangements seem more suitable. He must take
care, however, that those who show exceptional talent
for preaching are not kept too long in teaching litera-
ture or even philosophy and
theology, lest they take up
preaching only after their vitality has been sapped by
years in the classroom.
27. At the end of the
philosophical curriculum,
the provincial should choose one, two, or three, or
more scholastics according to the size of the class,
who give promise of greater competence than others, and
send them on to theology. However, upon completion of
their theological studies and the third year of proba-
tion,18 he
may employ them, if it seems necessary or
advisable, in teaching grammar or the humanities.
28. Scholastics, who
are destined for the study
of philosophy but have not completed it, should not be
sent to teach unless there is a dearth of those who have
finished that course.
29. He should also
see that scholastics begin
teaching with a class below that which they are pre-
pared to teach. In this way they can advance each
year to a higher grade with the greater part of their
pupils.
11
30. In order that teachers may be well prepared
for their work when they enter the classroom, it is
very important that they have practice sessions under
expert guidance. It is strongly recommended that the
rector diligently attend to this in the manner described
in his ninth rule.19
31. In the colleges,
particularly the larger
ones, where the student body is more numerous, a suffi-
cient number of confessors should be appointed so that
it will not be necessary for all to go to one confes-
sor. For this reason, extraordinary confessors are
to be appointed at various times in order to afford
penitents greater freedom.
32. The provincial
should give the colleges,
especially the smaller ones, a sufficient supply of
lay brothers,20 so that the rector will not have to
employ the professors and students in domestic work.
33. In order to provide
needed books for our
teachers, the provincial shall assign an annual revenue
from the college funds or from some other source for
building up the library. This revenue may under no
circumstances be diverted to other uses.
34. The provincial
must conscientiously take
every precaution to keep out of our schools works of
the poets and any other books which may be harmful to
character and morals, unless everything objectionable
in matter and style has been expunged.21 If, as in the
case of Terence, this is impossible, it will be better
not to read them at all than to expose our pupils to
spiritual harm.
35. In places where
the time schedule of classes
varies at different seasons of the year, the provincial
should determine for the entire year the hours for the
beginning and ending of classes. Once established,
this calendar is to be faithfully observed. He should
not readily allow the weekly holiday to be postponed
or anticipated, and he should require that the schedule
of class days and holidays be strictly followed.
12
36. A nice balance should be maintained between
study time and recreation periods.
Hence, no extra
holidays should be introduced and those established by
custom are to be faithfully observed. The following
regulations are to be carried out regarding vacations.
37. #1. The annual
vacation for students in
higher studies should last at least a month and not
longer than two months. The rhetoric class should have
a month’s vacation; unless university custom decrees
otherwise, the class of humanities three weeks; the
higher grammar class two weeks, and the other classes
only one week.
#2. Feast days (which
ought to be reduced rather
than increased in number) should be definitely estab-
lished for each region or country according to prevail-
ing custom, and then published officially.
#3. The higher faculties
should have vacation
from the vigil of the Nativity to the feast of Circum-
cision; the lower classes from noon of the vigil of
the Nativity to the feast of the Holy Innocents.
#4. Where it is the
custom no class is had from
Quinquagesima till Ash Wednesday, but all the profes-
sors shall hold class on Ash Wednesday afternoon.
#5. In the higher classes
there will be vacation
from Palm Sunday until Low Sunday; in the lower classes
from Wednesday noon of Holy Week till Easter Tuesday.
#6. In the higher classes
there will be no class
from the vigil of Pentecost until the following Tues-
day; in the lower classes from the noon of the vigil
till Tuesday. There is to be the usual Thursday holi-
day.
#7. On the day before
the feast of Corpus
Christi both lower and higher classes will be free dur-
ing the afternoon only. On the feast of All Souls only
the morning is free.
13
#8. Further, on days when classes are held only
in the lower schools, no lessening of the regular time
schedule is to be allowed.
#9. If at times, owing
to public pilgrimages,
classes cannot be held in the morning, they should at
least be held in the afternoon, and, where the custom
permits, classes should meet even in the morning of
Rogation days.
#10. At least one day
of every week is to be set
aside as a holiday. However, when two feast days fall
within the same week, there should be no other holiday,
unless this happens rather frequently and the feasts fall,
one on Monday, the other on Saturday. Then another free
day may be allowed. Should one feast day fall within a
week, say on a Wednesday or a Thursday, that day and no
other is to be free. But should the feast day fall on
a Monday or a Saturday, a holiday is to be granted on
Wednesday also. Finally, if a feast falls on a Tuesday
or a Friday and no sermon is scheduled for that day, so
that it may be given to suitable recreation, there is
to be no further holiday that week; but if the day can-
not be given over to recreation, then a holiday is to
be allowed on Wednesday or Thursday.
#11. In the higher
classes the weekly recreation
day will be entirely free. In the lower classes, how-
ever, class will be held in the morning, for an hour
and a half in rhetoric and for two hours in the other
classes. The afternoon is free for all students. Begin-
ning, however, in June, the
entire day is free for all.
38. In order to ensure
abundant success for the
Society’s teaching apostolate to the greater glory of
God, the provincial must see to it that both superiors
and subjects follow with perfect fidelity their own par-
ticular rules found in this Ratio Studiorum.
39. In view of differences
in places, times, and
persons,22 there are bound to be certain variations in
the order and time schedule of studies, in the holding
of repetitions, disputations, and other exercises, as
14
well as in vacations. Therefore, if the provincial thinks
that in his province some special arrangement will make
for better progress in studies, he should refer the mat-
ter to the general so that adjustments may be approved
which will satisfy his needs, but in such wise that they
will conform as nearly as possible to the general plan
of our studies.
40. Finally, the provincial
should consider as
especially committed to his charge and care all that is
laid down in the rules for the professors of the lower
classes concerning piety and good conduct and the teach-
ing of Christian doctrine, as well as what is prescribed
in the rules common to all teachers concerning religious
duty and moral training: for these touch directly on the
good of souls and are repeatedly recommended in the Con-
stitutions.
* * * * *
1. The purpose of the Society in conducting col-
leges and universities is two-fold: First, she wants
to equip her members with a good liberal education and
with other skills required in her ministry, and secondly
she wants to provide them with an opportunity to share
with students in the classroom the fruits of their train-
ing. The rector’s chief concern should be the spiritual
development of the young men committed to his care, but
he should make every effort to achieve the goals which
the Society has in mind in founding and conducting
schools.
2. He will have a prefect
of studies to assist
him in the administration of the curriculum, and he shall
delegate to him all the authority which he considers
necessary for the right conduct of that office.
15
3. He shall so manage and regulate his other
responsibilities as to be able to encourage and promote
all the forms of literary projects in the school. He
must occasionally visit the classes, including the
lower ones. He shall frequently attend the private and
public disputations in theology and philosophy. He
should observe whether these various scholastic exer-
cises produce the desired results. If they are ineffec-
tive, he should discover the reasons.
4. He should not excuse
anyone from attending
the disputations or repetitions, thus giving the stu-
dents to understand that he attaches great importance
to these exercises.23 He should likewise prevent stu-
dents from engaging in pursuits which may interfere with
their studies.
5. Those who are engaged
in the graduate biennium
of theology24 are not to be assigned by the rector to
preach in churches or convents of nuns except rarely
and with the provincial’s approval.
6. They may, however,
substitute for the regular
teachers of philosophy or theology who chance to be ab-
sent. They may likewise, if there is need, take the
place of the professors in presiding over the repetitions
and disputations conducted within the college. If the
provincial consents, they may for a time even teach
philosophy or theology.
7. The rector shall
provide for the formation of
study groups (academies) in Hebrew and Greek among the
scholastics. Members of such groups should meet to prac-
tice these languages two or
three times a week at a
stated time, possibly during the recreation periods. By
thus becoming proficient in them, they will preserve the
knowledge of these languages and maintain for them a po-
sition of honor in our Society and with the general pub-
lic.
8. He shall take care
that at home our scholas-
tics keep up the practice of speaking Latin.25 Excep-
tion may be made only on vacation days and during recre-
ation periods, but even at these times the practice may
be retained in certain places if the provincial thinks
16
it advisable. The rector shall also see to it that when
our scholastics who are still in their studies write to
other scholastics they shall do so in Latin. Moreover,
two or three times a year, on the occasion of some spe-
cial festivity, such as the beginning of a new academic
year or the renewal of vows, students of philosophy and
theology should compose verses and display them in pub-
lic.
9. To make sure that
the teachers of the lower
classes do not enter upon teaching as raw recruits, the
rector of the college which supplies masters of classi-
cal literature and of granunar shall, toward the end of
their studies, select an experienced professor and have
those who are about to begin teaching meet with him for
an hour three times a week, to acquire pedagogical tech-
nique. They shall take turns in giving the prelection,
in dictating, in writing, in correcting, and in perform-
ing the other duties of a good teacher.26
10. It may happen that
scholastics of the Society
who are studying rhetoric and humanities do not attend
public classes or, when they do, they may find that the
instructor is too overburdened to do justice to both lay
students and scholastics. In such circumstances the
rector shall assign some other capable teacher to give
our scholastics private instruction and exercises at
home according to the directions given in the rules for
the professor of rhetoric.
11. It is likewise
for the rector to see that our
students of rhetoric occasionally write and deliver at
dinner or in the school auditorium Latin or Greek ora-
tions or verses on some subject which will be of spiritu-
al benefit and inspiration to students of the college
and to externs. He shall be careful that other academic
exercises recommended in the Constitutions be not ne-
glected.
12. Wherever possible,
our boarding students
should study rhetoric for a year before they take up the
study of philosophy. Their parents should be shown how
advantageous this is. Day students should be urged to
do the same, but are not to be compelled if they cannot
17
be persuaded to follow this advice. Nevertheless, should
very young students, from whom disturbance more than prog-
ress may be expected, wish to study philosophy, they may
be treated as the Constitutions (Part IV, ch. 17, D) pro-
vide in the case of those who are unwilling to bind them-
selves with a promise to observe the Constitutions or to
enter their names for matriculation.27
13. Tragedies and comedies,28
which are to be pro-
duced only rarely and in Latin, must have a spiritual and
edifying theme. Whatever is introduced as an interlude
must be in Latin and observe propriety. No female make-
up or costume is to be permitted.
14. Prizes may be distributed
publicly once a year
provided their cost is borne by prominent persons and is
kept moderate in proportion to the number of students and
the status of the college. The donors of prizes should
receive recognition at the distribution ceremony. It is
the rector’s duty to see that in preparing for the com-
petition the students do not fall behind in their stud-
ies or develop undesirable attitudes.
15. The rector shall
see to it that the convoca-
tion address at the beginning of the new school year is
delivered by one of the more distinguished members of the
faculty.
16. He shall see to
the observance of the rule of
the librarian which directs that copies of literary work
written and displayed within the college and outside by
members of the Society--dialogues, addresses, verses, and
works of a similar nature--be preserved in the archives.
It is for the prefect of studies or other competent
judges to select the papers to be thus preserved.
17. He shall instruct
the librarian not to depart
from the directions of the prefect of studies in regard
to the circulation of books.
18. Every month, or
at least every other month,
the rector shall call a meeting of the teachers of all
classes below logic, at which both prefects of studies
should be present; and from time to time he shall call
18
a meeting of the other professors, at which the prefect
of higher studies should be present. At these confer-
ences some of the rules for the teachers of the lower
studies should be read, and also some that are common
to all teachers, especially those pertaining to disci-
pline and piety, and then some of the rules that are
special to the teachers of the individual classes. He
shall make it clear to the teachers that they are free
to propose problems that may have arisen in following
the rules or any lapse in their observance.
19. The lower classes
must have a weekly holiday,
either for an entire day or at least for the afternoon,
depending on the custom of the region.
20. The rector should
strive, with religious
charity, to stimulate enthusiasm in the teachers for
their work, and should see to it that they be not over-
burdened with non-academic chores. He should pay par-
ticular attention in their regard to what is prescribed
in the twenty-fifth rule of his office.29
21. He should consider
whether, in addition to
the weekly spiritual talk given by the teachers, another
should be given every month or two by some older priest,
using for the purpose a large classroom or hall, where
the lower classes can all be accommodated. He should
likewise consider whether it would be useful for the
prefect of studies or some one else to visit the classes
periodically in order to give the students practical ad-
vice suited to their needs.
22. When the provincial
appoints an assistant to
the prefect of lower studies, he may be called prefect
of the hall. His responsibilities are set down in the
Rules of the Prefect of Lower Studies, in rule 2 and in
rules 37 to the end, which concern discipline. It may
also be thought well to have him perform the duties out-
lined in rules 9 to 13 which have to do with the exam-
ination of new students.
23. The rector shall
see to the establishment in
his college of the Sodality of the Annunciation affili-
ated to that of the Roman College.30
Students who are
not enrolled in the Sodality are not eligible for admis-
19
sion to the various literary academies, unless the rec-
tor sees fit to make an exception. Exercises of the
Sodality or of an academy are not to be scheduled at a
time when sermons or lectures are being given in the
college church.
24. Finally, the rector
shall consult the provin-
cial and diligently carry out what he shall prescribe
concerning vacations, degrees, those who are to be se-
lected for a biennium in theology,
and similar matters.
*
* * * *
RULES OF THE PREFECT OF STUDIES
1. The function of
the prefect of studies31 is
to act as general assistant to the rector in properly
organizing and directing our schools according to the
amount of authority delegated to him by the rector, so
that those who attend our schools will, to the greater
glory of God, make the greatest possible progress in de-
velopment of character, literary
skills, and learning.
2. Where the office
of Chancellor32 in a college
is distinct from that of the prefect of studies, it is
for the provincial (keeping in mind the customs and
statutes of the college in question) to determine which
of the following rules apply to both alike and which
are peculiar to one or the other.
3. The prefect of studies
shall neither change
nor dispense from the directives and regulations con-
tained in the system of studies, but if need for a change
should arise, he shall have recourse to the superior.
4. It is the duty of
the prefect of studies to
familiarize himself with the Ratio Studiorum and see
20
that students and teachers observe its prescriptions,
particularly those which have to do with the teaching
of St. Thomas in theology and the rules which govern
the selection of views to be held in philosophy. In
this latter he should be doubly vigilant where there is
question of a defense of philosophical theses and above
all when the theses are to be printed.
5. He shall remind
the professors of theology,
of philosophy, and of moral, especially those who tend
to delay over their subject matter, that they should
keep advancing steadily so as to cover the matter as-
signed them each year.
6. He shall preside
at all disputations which
the professors of theology or philosophy attend. He
shall signal the end of the disputation and shall so
proportion the time that each will have an opportunity
to take part. He shall not allow any problem which
comes up for discussion to be so hashed and rehashed
that it will be no better understood in the end than
at the start. After allowing for debate, he shall ask
the presiding officer to give a succinct and final ex-
planation. He himself should not give the solution,
but rather should direct the give-and-take of the dis-
putation. He will do this with greater dignity by not
joining in the argument, though this is sometimes proper,
but by asking questions to bring out the precise point
at issue.
7. He shall remind
the superior in good time to
consult with the professors and choose the students
who are to defend theses, either on the whole of the-
ology or on any part of it. These comprehensive dis-
putations, usually called “acts,”33 will be presented,
not by those engaged in the two-year review of theology,
but by theology students of the fourth-year class.
Third-year students may be chosen if the fourth-year
class is very small. The "acts" are to be held even
when members of the Society study theology in one of
their own houses. Outsiders are to be invited and the
defense should be conducted with some pomp and circum-
stance. Disputants in the "acts" on the whole of the-
ology need not be chosen from among those who have al-
ready defended some part of theology; rather let those
21
who show greater skill and ability be chosen. Those
who are destined to have the graduate biennium in the-
ology shall hold their "acts" during that time, as will
be explained later.
8. In consultation
with the theology professors,
the prefect shall draw up from the four divisions of
theology34 the subject matter for the particular dis-
putations which individuals will have. These disputa-
tions are not to be held too frequently but only from
time to time. They shall last at least two and a half
hours, either in the morning or the afternoon. There
shall be not fewer than three objectors, one of whom
should as a rule be a doctor of theology.
9. The comprehensive
disputations or "acts" em-
brace all of theology and occupy both morning and after-
noon. Where it is customary to hold disputations only
in the morning or the afternoon, they shall be held
for a period of at least four or five hours.
10. If it is thought
advisable, the theses for
the "acts" may be the same for all who are to take part
in them that year, and may be printed if it is the ac-
ceptable practice to do so.
11. When convenient,
one of the "acts" should be
scheduled for the last week of the school year and an-
other one for the week of the reopening of classes.
12. Each year some
former students not of the
Society, who have completed their theological course
in our college with more than ordinary distinction,
should be invited to present an "act." Such "acts"
should be conducted with unusual ceremony and should be
attended by as many members of the Society as possible,
by extern doctors, and also by princes of the realm.
13. The professors
of theology, either in turn
or both together, shall preside at all the "acts" so
that each may answer questions pertaining to his sub-
ject. Others of the Society who are doctors may also
preside.
14. In the "acts"
the theses must not be too
long, nor more than fifty in number, and less than fifty
22
if it is the accepted custom of the college. In a par-
ticular defense there should be no more than twenty
theses, in the monthly disputations not more than twelve
or fifteen, and in the weekly disputations not more than
eight or nine.
15. Before the disputation
begins, the defendant
shall briefly explain one or other thesis in theological
form but with a certain elegance of style.
16. The prefect shall
see to it that the rules of
the professors of theology and of philosophy be observed
in the conduct of the monthly and weekly disputations.
17. From time to time,
that is, at least once a
month, the prefect shall attend the lectures of the pro-
fessors and occasionally look over the notes taken down
in class by the students. Should he observe anything
worthy of critical comment or hear anything from others
which he knows is well founded, he should call it to the
attention of the professor with great tact and gentle-
ness. If it seems necessary he may report the matter to
the rector.
18. He shall do the
same when any point of differ-
ence between himself and a professor arises in reviewing
the theses. He must not strike out or change any thesis
without the knowledge of the professor, but the change
should be made, and no one else besides the rector should
know of it.
19. Disputations on
the entire course of philoso-
phy shall be held at the end of the third year.35 For
these disputations only a few shall be selected who are
outstanding (i.e. who are more than average in ability)
and capable of upholding the dignity of the occasion.
20. These defendants
are to be chosen by three
or more examiners, one of whom shall always be the pre-
fect of studies and another the defendant’s professor.
The rector shall assign a third, either another professor
or someone else whom he judges to be competent. To these
three the rector shall add two more teachers who may be
changed or substituted for; but if teachers are not avail-
able, he may appoint any two capable examiners who are to
cast their votes in writing with the other three examiners.
23
Thus there will be a minimum of five votes, which are
to be cast in secret and kept in strictest confidence.
21. It shall suffice
for the day or boarding stu-
dents to be examined by their prefect and two students
who are reviewing philosophy, or, lacking these, by two
of the abler Jesuit students of theology selected by the
prefect of studies. However, students judged worthy of
a defense by these examiners shall not prepare for it
until they have been approved by their own professor and
the prefect of studies.
22. No Jesuit student,
nor, as far as possible,
any boarding student is to be excused from this examina-
tion. Unless something interferes, it is to be held in
public, that is, when a Jesuit student is examined, all
other Jesuit students shall be present; when a boarding
student is examined, it shall be before all the philoso-
phy students of his college; and when a day student is
examined (who, however, shall not be forced to undergo
the examination), day students of philosophy, at least
of his class, s