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South Africa by George Subotzky Introduction
South Africa’s population of approximately 44 million is comprised of 70% Africans, 16% whites, 10% colored, and 4% Indians. The gross domestic product (GDP) per capita in 1998 was about $2,900.History
The history of South Africa has been characterized by particularly intense political conflict and socio-cultural divisions along race and class lines. The initial character of the higher education system was forged by the country’s colonial history and the underlying conflict between British and Afrikaner nationalism. Today, the system is being fundamentally reshaped by the post-apartheid transformation of South African society.
Unlike most other colonized African nations, the unusual proliferation of 36 higher education institutions among a relatively underpopulated nation was the combined result of two aspects of South Africa’s history. First, the intense rivalry between the two dominant political and cultural groups--the British colonists and Boer Afrikaners--worked against the establishment of a single national university and spawned a multiplicity of historically white universities (HWUs). Second, apartheid racial and technicist ideology later generated more HWUs, as well as the 10 historically black universities (HBUs) and subsequently the 15 technikons (of which, seven were historically white, and seven historically black, and one a distance-education technikon).Between 1916 and the late 1980s, a system of 36 higher education institutions, comprising 21 universities and 15 technikons with approximately 550,000 students evolved.
Enrollment
Enrollments have risen steadily from 473,000 in 1993 to 564,000 in 1999, an overall increase of about 28% and an average annual increase of 6%. Between 1993-98, headcounts grew more rapidly in technikons (56%) than in universities (17%). Enrollments peaked at 605,000 in 1998 and then decreased by about 40,000 (7%) by 1999.It is clear that the decline in enrollments was most evident in HBUs (where it involved mainly African students) and in the distance education institutions (UNISA and Technikon South Africa). Enrollments in HBUs peaked in 1995 to reach 29% of total university enrollments, and since then declined steadily to 21% in 1999. An especially sharp drop of 20,000 headcount enrollments occurred between 1997-99, with a fall of 13,000 (14%) between 1998-99 alone. The latest indications of enrollments suggest that this pattern continued in 2000 but is showing signs of bottoming out at most (but not all) HBUs in 2001. A similar pattern was evident at UNISA and Technikon South Africa, peaking in 1995 and declining by about 20,000 each since then. In sharp contrast, Afrikaans HWUs increased steadily by 55,000 from 73,000 in 1993 to 128,000 in 1999. Enrollments at English HWUs remained relatively static.
Among the technikons, a steady increase occurred at both HBIs and HWIs, the former growing by 80% from 24,000 to 44,000 between 1993-99, and the latter by 40% from 58,000 to 82,000 during the same period. In both cases, these rather dramatic increases tapered off from 1997 and then declined from 1998-99. Despite a recent decline at the two major distance education institutions, the number and proportion of distance-education enrollments in the whole system has steadily increased. Between 1993-99, contact enrollments increased by 16% and distance education by 24%.
From 1993-99, African student numbers in the system as a whole rose from 191,000 to 332,000, that is by 75%, raising the proportion of the total from 40% to 59%. Correspondingly, white student numbers declined sharply by 60,000 from 223,000 to 163,000, dropping from 47% to 29% of the total. African enrollments in universities rose by 71,000 (48%) from 1993-99 and more than doubled in technikons by 90,000 (104%). Conversely, white student enrollments in universities declined by 26,000 (17%) over this period, and almost halved in technikons, by 34,000 (48%). Colored students enrollments remained static over this period, while Indians student numbers increased slightly.
Universities HBU HWU Afrikaans HWU English UNISA Total Technikons HBT HWT Technikon SA Total Source: DOE 1999, Tables 25.1, 26, 27.2, and 28. Gender Issues
Regarding gender equity, higher education in South Africa is somewhat anomalous by international comparisons. Absolute gender parity in overall enrollments was reached by 1997. By 1999, women students were in the majority. At universities, women were already the majority in 1995. While still in the minority at technikons, there has been a very rapid increase in female enrollment, more than doubling from 42,000 to 86,000 from 1993-99. This signals a strong entry into vocational fields by women. However, these overall figures hide the fact that women remain underrepresented in certain fields, such a science and technology, and at the higher qualification levels, particularly at the master’s and doctoral levels. Within some fields, such as business and commerce, women tend to be concentrated in “lower” programs such as public administration, rather than the “higher” ones such as business management. Conversely, women students tend to be concentrated in the traditional fields associated with females, such as teaching, social work, and the “lower” health and law programs, as well as at the lower certificate and diploma qualifications levels in all fields.Faculty
In stark contrast to the dramatically rapid Africanization of the student body over the past few years, the composition of staff, and of faculty in particular, has remained relatively unchanged. There is an overwhelming dominance of white faculty in the higher education system. Although the number and proportion of African faculty doubled from 1993-98 from 720 to 1,555 (6% to 12% of the total), this increase was confined mainly to the historically disadvantaged institutions. Correspondingly, while the proportion of white faculty dropped from 87% to 79%, this comprised a slight decrease in the absolute number of whites (from 10,901 to 10,587). These trends were especially marked at HBTs, where the proportion of African faculty rose from 17% to 49%, while that of white faculty dropped from 80% to 41%.Women constituted about 36% of all faculty in 1998, an increase from around 30% in 1993. While this is an encouraging trend, women remain under-represented in the higher ranks, qualification levels, and in fields of study other than those traditionally associated with women. In 1997, men still constituted 90% of professors, 78% of associate professors, and 67% of senior lecturers, but only about 47% of the junior ranks.
Funding and Resources
South African higher education is financed principally by government subsidy and fee recovery, augmented by private and government contracts, donor and alumni support, and investments. Government allocations to higher education increased by an average annual increase of 5% from 1995-99. The proportion allocated to technikons has increased slowly but steadily.Research and Publishing
Research and development expenditure in higher education represents a relatively low proportion of the total in international terms, and remains concentrated in a narrow band of five fields: agriculture, health, education, community and social services, and manufacturing. Consequently, the key fields of energy, environment, communications, and tourism have been inadequately serviced.Indications are that the bulk of research activities are concentrated in a few (mainly white) institutions. About 65% of research publications output and 61% of research and development funding allocations to higher education are concentrated in five white universities (Cape Town, Natal, Pretoria, Stellenbosch, and Witwatersrand). By contrast, just 10% is produced in the 10 HBUs combined, of which the major part is produced by the two non-African urban institutions, namely, the University of the Western Cape and the University of Durban-Westville. Research activities in technikons vary very widely but are generally very low.
Governance and Administration
One of the tasks of the Higher Education Board (HEB) is to assist in the transformation of institutional governance structures. Each public institution is established by an act of parliament, and the institutional governance structures consist of a council, senate, executive management teams, and institutional forums. Councils generally are comprised of ministerial appointments; representatives of regional government, business, and other higher education institutions; institutional executive management; and representatives of institutional stakeholders. They are the highest decision-making body and are responsible for overall policy.Senates are comprised of senior academics, executive management, and stakeholder representatives. The senates are responsible for academic matters. Executive management teams are comprised of the vice-chancellor (president); deputy vice-chancellors (for academic and student affairs); deans; heads of finance, personnel, and other key operational areas; and advisers.
The role and focus of student politics and their involvement in educational transformation has shifted in recent years. Historically, students were at the forefront of the anti-apartheid struggle. Recently, however, they have been co-opted into participating in the new governance structures without the full capacities to undertake the required policy analysis that would render such participation meaningful.
Private Higher Education
A noteworthy recent development in higher education has been the very rapid growth of the private sector. A rapid proliferation of both local and international providers and suppliers has occurred, mainly from the United Kingdom, the United States, and Australia. This has been matched by growing local demand for the perceived better quality and more flexible market-oriented programs, especially those designed for non-traditional students. While some of the providers are long-established and reputable local and foreign institutions, a number of local “fly-by-night” institutions recently came to light and were prominently featured in the local press.Note: For detailed account on the state of higher education in South Africa, please consult: George Subotzky, African Higher Education: An International Reference Handbook (Damtew Teferra and Philip. G. Altbach, Indiana University Press, 2003), pp. 545-562.
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