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	Madagascar
by James Stiles

Introduction
Madagascar had a population of more than 15 million in 2000. The country’s gross national product GNP is $250.

History of Higher Education
Madagascar became a French protectorate in 1885. Advanced education during the colonial period included the religious seminaries, the Colonial Professional College, and the Medical School of Béfalatánana. During the Second World War, Malagasies organized courses in law and established the Law Examinations Center. After the liberation of France in 1948, and was transformed into the College of Law (1955). Companion institutions of science (1954-57) and letters (1959) were also formed during this period.

On June 26, 1960, independence returned to Madagascar, and one year after independence, the first true university was formally organized by merging the independent faculties of law, letters, and science and technology with the formerly independent medical school. The university enrolled 1,130 students during its first year.

Enrollment
Enrollments in the public university system were reduced from around 33,000 in 1993 to fewer than 19,000 five years later. Tertiary enrollment accounts for 2.5% of traditional college-aged students, but is unevenly divided across the country.

Total current student enrollment in private higher education is more difficult to assess. Most institutions have quite small enrollments of 100–400 students. The 1997 MINESUP Annual Report estimated private enrollment at 1,500 students, but failed to provide any detail. The actual figure is probably closer to 4,000-5,000 students.

Student Enrollments: 1986-97
University	1987	1990	1993	1994	1997
Antananarivo	26,592	27,680	24,038	19,865	12,431
Antsiranana	867	882	783	887	865
Fianarantsoa	1,845	2,022	2,066	1,518	1,628
Mahajanga	1,038	1,257	1,560	1,526	1,463
Toamasina	3,081	3,472	2,603	1,719	1,411
Toliara	1,683	1,733	2,152	1,422	1,147
Total	35,106	37,046	33,202	26,937	18,945

Faculty
In 1993, there was an average student-to-faculty ratio of 47:1; this was reduced to 22:1 by 1996. Faculty at the universities are predominantly Malagasy citizens, although roughly 10% of the teaching staff were foreign nationals of which half were French, in 1997. Women have made significant inroads into faculty positions, accounting for 31% of all teaching staff.

All faculty are appointed and promoted by the Ministry of Higher Education. The ministry, rather than academic officers, sets salaries and working conditions. Faculty members have strong ties to politics and the political system. While the teaching corps increased during the 1990s, the number of administrative staff shrank by 5%. The student-to-administrator ratio (6:1) remains high relative to other countries.

Teaching Faculty at the Public Universities: 1996-97
University	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997
Antananarivo	529	545	553	542	593
Antsiranana	30	52	55	54	59
Fianarantsoa	36	44	48	52	59
Mahajanga	33	48	56	53	61
Toamasina	29	31	33	32	40
Toliara	56	69	73	78	88
Total	713	789	818	811	900
Academic Rank
Professor Titulaire	58	55	56	75	83
Professor	-	-	-	44	55
Maitre de conference	339	394	419	354	408
Assistant	316	340	343	338	354
Total	713	789	818	811	900

Governance and Administration
Ministry of Higher Education (MINESUP) is responsible for six public universities, numerous public institutes and research centers, and is jointly responsible with other ministries for 11 other schools of advanced education. Since 1992, it began to offer certification to private higher education institutions, 16 of which have been certified.

MINESUP appoints a rector who governs each university with two constituent councils, one for administration and the other for academic affairs. The administrative council works with the rector to examine and approve the university’s budget, fix the rules and regulations of the institution, and to ensure the efficient conduct of business affairs. Together with the academic council and the rector, it works to define the principal activities of the university, plan for the education and training of faculty, and rule on proposals for new academic programs. The academic affairs council concerns itself primarily with issues of pedagogy and research.

Private Higher Education
Since the 1960s, private institutions have been engaged in secular advanced education. Sixteen institutions have formed agreements with MINESUP and are part of the Association of Private Establishments of Higher Education in Madagascar (AEESPM), which was created in 1995. None of the current establishments have enrollments beyond 500 students.

Gender Issues
Girls have been educated alongside boys since the introduction of formal education in Madagascar in the 19th century. While cultural barriers continue to exist, females accounted for 46% of enrolled university students in 1996-97. Looking at enrollment across academic subject areas, this balance of females and males is consistent, with the exception of engineering and agriculture programs.

Note: For detailed account on the state of higher education in Madagascar, please consult: James Stiles, African Higher Education: An International Reference Handbook (Damtew Teferra and Philip. G. Altbach, eds., Indiana University Press, 2003), pp. 403-413.

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