Introduction
Prior to independence, Congo had 2 universities: Lovanium University (Université Louvanium), created in 1954, and the Official University (Université Officielle du Congo), created in 1956.

History of Higher Education
Major historical events in Congolese higher education begins in 1954 with the inauguration of the Lovanium University in Kinshasa through the period of the Etats Généraux de l´Education in January 1996.

The 1954-1971 period was characterized by a certain degree of autonomy at the operational level. Lovanium University, affiliated with the Catholic Church, and the Protestant Autonomous University of Congo (Université Libre du Congo), were governed by elected administrative boards. The University of Congo at Lubumbashi (1956) enjoyed internal autonomy in spite of the control exercised over it by the minister of education.

In August 1971, the three existing universities merged and the faculty was reshuffled among the three institutions to create the National University of Zaire (Université Nationale du Zaïre, UNAZA). The Advanced Institutes (Instituts Supérieurs) were reorganized in 2 main categories: Advanced Technical Institutes (Instituts Supérieurs Téchniques, IST) and Advanced Pedagogical Institutes (Instituts Supérieurs Pédagogiques, ISP). The Revolutionary Council (Conseil Révolutionnaire) became the only administrative body.

Between 1991 and 1980, they were divided again into 3 universities (University of Kinshasa, Kisangani University, and Lubumbashi University) as well as 18 Advanced Technical Institutes, 16 Advanced Pedagogical Institutes, and a School of Agronomy (Institut Facultaire des Sciences Agronomiques).

In 1988-89, while the normal university capacity was estimated at 9,927 at the public universities the actual number of students was estimated at 27,166, resulting in a 274% saturation rate.

Student Enrollment
In 1988-89, while the normal university capacity was estimated at 9,927 at the public universities of Kinshasa, Kisangani, Lubumbashi, and the Yangambi Institute of Agronomy (Institut Facultaire des Sciences Agronomiques), the actual number of students was estimated at 27,166, resulting in a 274% saturation rate.
The country also needed to reduce regional disparities in enrollments. The city of Kinshasa, with only 10.4% of the population, was hosting 53.1% of the student population in 1989-90. Meanwhile, other provincial universities such as the Upper-Congo (13.8% population) and Katanga (13% population) hosted, respectively, 10.9% and 29.6% of the student population.

Governance and Administration
At the national level, the ministry of finance deals with budget allocation and loan provision; the ministry of civil service has control over personnel; and the ministry of planning is charged with issues pertaining to the planning of human resources.

The senior officials of the different departments--such as senior academic staff, members of the academic and scientific personnel, and managers of administrative and technical staf--are designated by the president of the republic or one of the ministers in charge of higher education.

Normally, university presidents are nominated by members of the academic community; however, the president of the republic appoints the chancellor following nomination by the minister. With regard to the nomination of assistants, positions that require a certain technicality or particular skills are chosen by the administrative officers. Examples of such positions are the general administrative secretary and the budget administrator.
University senior officers are usually chosen by the academic community but not necessarily from within the institution.

Research and Publishing
The organization of university research and publication benefited from special attention during their first years as authorities put in place appropriate structures to promote research. Each school was assigned a vice-dean in charge of research and new research centers were established. In 1978, the Permanent Commission for Research (Commission Permanente de la Recherche, CPR) and the Permanent Commission for Studies (Commission Permanente des Etudes, CPE) were created.

The Zaire University Press, part of the Zaire National University, served as a point of reference within Africa, as well as abroad. Its mission has been impeded, however, by budgetary problems caused by insufficient funds, inconsistency in budget allocation, and the multiplicity of decision-making centers involved in budget management.

Funding and Resources
The consecutive economic crises the country endured resulted in the disengagement of the state from higher education. Education appropriations dwindled from 24.2% in 1980 (7.4% for higher education) to 7.9% in 1988 (1.5% for higher education). During the "political transition" period, the ministry in charge of higher education created many university centers, public advanced technical and pedagogical institutes as a step toward the "redistribution" of institutions throughout the country.

Two modes of financing, state subsidies and institutional revenues, exist. State subsidies represent 90% of education funding and cover salaries, operational expenses, and grants. Institutional revenue, accounting for no more than 10% of any institution’s budget, is composed essentially of admission fees and income from services. Institutions have no real say with regard to allocation of available resources or the possibility of disposing of their budget to take advantage of available opportunities.

Private Education
In 1996, there were 263 private educational institutions: 28.9% were approved; 32.3% were authorized to operate; and 38.8% were being considered for authorization. Some of these universities proved to be of good quality. Cases in point are the private Catholic Theology Schools of Kinshasa (Facultés Catholiques de Kinshasa), the Bukavu Catholic University (Université Catholique de Bukavu), the Graben Catholic University at Butembo (Université Catholique du Graben), the Autonomous University of the Great Lakes at Goma (Université Libre des Pays des Grands Lacs), the Protestant University of Congo at Kinshasa (Université Protestante du Congo) and provincial universities, such as the Kongo University (Université du Kongo) -the former University of Lower-Zaire.

Note: For detailed account on the state of higher education in Congo-Zaire, please consult: Matundu Lelo, African Higher Education: An International Reference Handbook (Damtew Teferra and Philip. G. Altbach, eds., Indiana University Press, 2003), pp. 265-272.