1 See Frank K. Upham, Privatization Regulation: Japanese Regulatory Style in Comparative and International Perspective, 20 Fordham Int’l L.J. 396, 401 (1997); George A. Zaphiriou, Unification and Harmonization of Law Relating to Global and Regional Trading, 14 N. Ill. U.L. Rev. 407, 418–19 (1994).
2 See generally Treaty on European Union and Final Act, Feb. 7, 1992, Belg.-Den.-Fr.-F.R.G.-Greece-Ir.-Italy-Lux.-Neth.-Port.-Spain-U.K., 31 I.L.M. 247 (1992); see also Council Directive of 25 July 1985 on the approximation of the laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the Member States concerning liability for defective products, 1985 O.J. (L 210) 29, 29 [hereinafter EC Directive].
3 See Jason F. Cohen, Note, The Japanese Product Liability Law: Sending a Pro-Consumer Tsunami through Japan’s Corporate and Judicial Worlds, 21 Fordham Int’l L.J. 108, 148 (1997).
4 See generally EC Directive, supra note 2; Mark A. Behrens & Daniel H. Raddock, Japan’s New Product Liability Law: The Citadel of Strict Liability Falls, But Access to Recovery is Limited by Formidable Barriers, 16 U. Pa. J. Int’l Bus. L. 669 (1995); Cohen, supra note 3; Thomas Lundmark, The Restatement of Torts (Third) and the European Product Liability Directive, 5 J. Int’l L. & Prac. 239 (1996).
5 See Jane Stapleton, Product Liability 9 (1994).
6 See, e.g., EC Directive, supra note 2, at 29; Lundmark, supra note 4, at 242–43; Andrew Marcuse, Comment, Why Japan’s New Products Liability Law Isn’t, 5 Pac. Rim L. & Pol’y J. 365, 365 (1996).
7 See Escola v. Coca Cola Bottling Co., 150 P.2d 436, 440–41 (Cal. 1944) (Traynor, J., concurring); see also W. Page Keeton et al., Prosser and Keeton on the Law of Torts § 98, at 692–93 (5th ed. 1984); Stapleton, supra note 5, at 20–21.
8 The Product Liability Law, Law No. 85 of 1994 (Japan), tentative translation available at (visited Feb. 8, 2000) <http://www.jef.or.jp/news/guidepll.html> [hereinafter 1994 Act].
9 See Lundmark, supra note 4, at 242–43.
10 See id.; see generally Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability (1998); Restatement (Second) of Torts (1965). Due to the diversity among the fifty states, the Restatements will be used as the basic standards in the United States for the purposes of this Note, with reference to specific states where appropriate. See Lundmark, supra note 4, at 260–63.
11 See Escola, 150 P.2d at 440–41 (Traynor, J., concurring); Stapleton, supra note 5, at 22; Lundmark, supra note 4, at 244.
12 See Lundmark, supra note 4, at 242.
13 See Stapleton, supra note 5, at 14.
14 See Geraint Howells, Comparative Product Liability 5 (1993); Keeton et al., supra note 7, § 95A, at 679; C.J. Miller & P.A. Lovell, Product Liability 78–79 (1977); Stapleton, supra note 5, at 10.
15 See Stapleton, supra note 5, at 11.
16 See id.
17 See Keeton et al., supra note 7, §§ 95A, 96A, at 679–83. Expressed warranties are the result of expressed statements by the manufacturer, distributor, or seller regarding the quality of a product. See id. Implied warranties hold the seller responsible for the fitness of goods for ordinary purposes. See id.
18 See id. § 96, at 681; Lundmark, supra note 4, at 244.
19 See Keeton et al., supra note 7, § 96, at 684; Stapleton, supra note 5, at 15–16. For example, if John Doe bought a car and his wife was injured due to a defect in the car while driving, Mrs. Doe would not be able to recover for the resulting injuries because she had not been a party to the sale of the car or the contract relating to the car. See Keeton et al., supra note 7, § 96, at 684.
20 See Stapleton, supra note 5, at 15–16.
21 Winterbottom v. Wright, 10 M & W 109, 152 Eng. Rep. 402 (1842).
22 See id. at 114, 152 Eng. Rep. at 405; Keeton et al., supra note 7, § 96, at 681.
23 See Winterbottom, 10 M & W at 109, 152 Eng. Rep. at 402.
24 See id.
25 See id. at 110, 152 Eng. Rep. at 403.
26 See id.
27 See id. at 114, 152 Eng. Rep. at 405.
28 See Winterbottom, 10 M & W at 114, 152 Eng. Rep.at 405.
29 See id. at 115, 152 Eng. Rep. at 405.
30 See Stapleton, supra note 5, at 20.
31 See Keeton et al., supra note 7, § 96, at 682–83; Stapleton, supra note 5, at 20.
32 See Keeton et al., supra note 7, § 96, at 682–83; Stapleton, supra note 5, at 20.
33 See MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co., 111 N.E. 1050 (N.Y. 1916); see also Stapleton, supra note 5, at 20.
34 See MacPherson, 111 N.E. at 1051.
35 See id.
36 See id.
37 See id.
38 See id.
39 See MacPherson, 111 N.E. at 1051.
40 See id.
41 See id.; Keeton et al., supra note 7, § 96, at 683.
42 See Stapleton, supra note 5, at 20–22.
43 See Howells, supra note 14, at 206–07.
44 See id. at 207.
45 See Stapleton, supra note 5, at 20–22.
46 See Escola v. Coca Cola Bottling Co., 150 P.2d 436, 441 (Cal. 1944) (Traynor, J., concurring); see also Keeton et al., supra note 7, § 98, at 693; Stapleton, supra note 5, at 22.
47 See Escola, 150 P.2d at 440–41 (Traynor, J., concurring); see also Stapleton, supra note 5, at 22; Lundmark, supra note 4, at 244–45.
48 See Escola, 150 P.2d at 437.
49 See id. at 440–41 (Traynor, J., concurring); see also Stapleton, supra note 5, at 22; Lundmark, supra note 4, at 244–45.
50 See Escola, 150 P.2d at 440 (Traynor, J., concurring); see also Lundmark, supra note 4, at 245.
51 See Greenman v. Yuba Power Products, Inc., 377 P.2d 897, 901 (Cal. 1963); Stapleton, supra note 5, at 24.
52 See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability, supra note 10, § 1; Restatement (Second) of Torts, supra note 10, § 402A; Lundmark, supra note 4, at 246, 260–63.
53 See Restatement (Second) of Torts, supra note 10, § 402A.
54 See id. § 402A(1).
55 See id. § 402A(2).
56 See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability, supra note 10, at 3.
57 See id. § 2; see also Lundmark, supra note 4, at 251–52.
58 See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability, supra note 10, § 2(a); see also Lundmark, supra note 4, at 251.
59 See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability, supra note 10, § 2 cmt. c.
60 See id. § 2(b); see also Lundmark, supra note 4, at 251–52.
61 See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability, supra note 10, § 2(c); see also Lundmark, supra note 4, at 252.
62 See The Right Honorable The Lord Griffiths, M.C., et al., The Developments in English Product Liability Law: A Comparison with the American System, 62 Tul. L. Rev. 353, 355 (1988); Lundmark, supra note 4, at 242–43.
63 See Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 355; Lundmark, supra note 4, at 242–43.
64 See Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 355–56.
65 Donoghue v. Stevenson, 1932 App. Cas. 562 (Scot.); see Howells, supra note 14, at 70–71; Miller & Lovell, supra note 14, at 171; Stapleton, supra note 5, at 20; Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 356.
66 See Donoghue, 1932 App. Cas. at 580; see also Howells, supra note 14, at 70–71; Miller & Lovell, supra note 14, at 171; Stapleton, supra note 5, at 20; Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 356.
67 See Donoghue, 1932 App. Cas. at 566.
68 See id.
69 See id.
70 See id. at 580; see also Howells, supra note 14, at 70–71; Miller & Lovell, supra note 14, at 171; Stapleton, supra note 5, at 20; Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 356.
71 See Donoghue, 1932 App. Cas. at 580–81; see also Howells, supra note 14, at 70–71; Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 358.
72 See Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 360–62.
73 See id. at 359.
74 See id.
75 See id. at 360.
76 See id.
77 See Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 360.
78 See EC Directive, supra note 2; see also Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 369–75.
79 See EC Directive, supra note 2, art. 19.
80 See id. at 29; see also Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 370.
81 See Consumer Protection Act, 1987, ch. 43, § 1(1) (Eng.); Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 354.
82 See EC Directive, supra note 2, art. 15.
83 See id. art. 15(1)(b); see also Lundmark, supra note 4, at 255.
84 See Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 4(e); Lundmark, supra note 4, at 255.
85 See Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 1(2).
86 See id. §§ 1(3), 4(1)(f).
87 See id. § 2(2).
88 See id. § 2(3).
89 Id. § 3(1).
90 See Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 3(2).
91 Cohen, supra note 3, at 117–18.
92 See id. at 115–16.
93 See Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 672.
94 See id.
95 See Marcuse, supra note 6, at 369–70.
96 See id.
97 See Cohen, supra note 3, at 120.
98 See id. at 140, 147.
99 See id. at 141.
100 See Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 678; see also Zentaro Kitagawa, Products Liability, in 7 Doing Business in Japan (MB) Part 13, § 4.03[1] (Zentaro Kitagawa ed., 1989); Marcuse, supra note 6, at 370–72.
101 See Kitagawa, supra note 100, § 4.03[1] & n.1; Marcuse, supra note 6, at 370–72.
102 See Kitagawa, supra note 100, §§ 4.03[1][b], 4.06[1].
103 See id. § 4.06[1]; Junko Mori, Japan, in Product Liability in the Asia-Pacific 113, 114 (Jocelyn Kellam ed., 1995).
104 See Mori, supra note 103, at 114.
105 See Kitagawa, supra note 100, § 4.06[2]; Marcuse, supra note 6, at 370.
106 See Kitagawa, supra note 100, § 4.06[2].
107 See id.; Mori, supra note 103, at 114; Marcuse, supra note 6, at 371.
108 See Mori, supra note 103, at 114.
109 Kitagawa, supra note 100, § 4.05[1] n.1; see Mori, supra note 103, at 114.
110 See Kitagawa, supra note 100, § 4.05[1]; Mori, supra note 103, at 114.
111 See Mori, supra note 103, at 115; Marcuse, supra note 6, at 371.
112 See Mori, supra note 103, at 115.
113 See Marcuse, supra note 6, at 372.
114 See id. at 379.
115 See id.
116 See id.
117 See Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 706–07; Marcuse, supra note 6, at 379.
118 See Marcuse, supra note 6, at 379–80.
119 See id.
120 See id. at 380.
121 See Cohen, supra note 3, at 145–46, 150.
122 See Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 688; Cohen, supra note 3, at 153.
123 See Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 688; Cohen, supra note 3, at 148.
124 See Cohen, supra note 3, at 148.
125 See Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 688.
126 See Cohen, supra note 3, at 154.
127 See id. at 148.
128 See id. at 140–41.
129 See id.
130 See id. at 148, 149–50.
131 See Cohen, supra note 3, at 152.
132 See Mori, supra note 103, at 116; Marcuse, supra note 6, at 382.
133 See Marcuse, supra note 6, at 382.
134 See 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 6; Cohen, supra note 3, at 159, 176; Marcuse, supra note 6, at 388.
135 See Mori, supra note 103, at 115–16; Marcuse, supra note 6, at 388.
136 See Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 706–08; Mori, supra note 103, at 115–16; Cohen, supra note 3, at 176.
137 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 2(1).
138 Id. art. 2(3)(1).
139 Id. art. 2(3)(2).
140 See id. art. 2(3).
141 Id. art. 2(2).
142 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 4(1).
143 Id. art. 4(2).
144 See generally 1994 Act, supra note 8; Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81; Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability, supra note 10; Restatement (Second) of Torts, supra note 10.
145 See generally 1994 Act, supra note 8; Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81; Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability, supra note 10; Restatement (Second) of Torts, supra note 10.
146 See 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 3; Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 2(1); Restatement (Second) of Torts, supra note 10, § 402A.
147 See 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 1; Howells, supra note 14, at 70–71; Stapleton, supra note 5, at 20.
148 See 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 3; Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 2(1); Restatement (Second) of Torts, supra note 10, § 402A.
149 See 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 3; Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 2(1); Restatement (Second) of Torts, supra note 10, § 402A; Mori, supra note 103, at 115–16; Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 364; Marcuse, supra note 6, at 388–89.
150 See infra notes 153–230 and accompanying text.
151 See infra notes 153–81 and accompanying text.
152 See infra notes 182–230 and accompanying text.
153 See 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 2; Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 2; Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability, supra note 10, § 1; Restatement (Second) of Torts, supra note 10, § 402A.
154 See Restatement (Second) of Torts, supra note 10, § 402A.
155 See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability, supra note 10, § 1.
156 See Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 2(3).
157 See 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 2.
158 See id.
159 See supra notes 153–58 and accompanying text; see also Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability, supra note 10, § 2 cmt. a; Restatement (Second) of Torts, supra note 10, § 402A cmt. c.
160 See 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 2(1); Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 1(2); Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability, supra note 10, § 19; Restatement (Second) of Torts, supra note 10, § 402A cmt. e.
161 See Restatement (Second) of Torts, supra note 10, § 402A cmt. e.
162 Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability, supra note 10, §§ 19(a), 19 cmt. b.
163 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 2(1).
164 Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 1(2).
165 See 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 2(1); Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 1(2); Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability, supra note 10, § 19 cmt. b; Restatement (Second) of Torts, supra note 10, § 402A cmt. e.
166 See, e.g., 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 4(1); Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 4(e); Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability, supra note 10, § 2 cmt. d; Stapleton, supra note 5, at 239–42; Lundmark, supra note 4, at 255–56.
167 See 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 4(1); Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 4(e).
168 See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability, supra note 10, § 2 cmt. d. This is also known as the “developmental risks defense.” See Lundmark, supra note 4, at 255–56.
169 See Stapleton, supra note 5, at 239–42; Lundmark, supra note 4, at 255–56.
170 See Restatement (Second) of Torts, supra note 10, § 402A cmt. k.
171 See generally Product Liability Desk Reference: A Fifty-State Compendium (Morton F. Daller ed., 1998) [hereinafter Product Liability Desk Reference].
172 See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability, supra note 10, § 2 cmt. d.
173 See generally Product Liability Desk Reference, supra note 171; see also 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 4(1); Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 4(e).
174 See generally Product Liability Desk Reference, supra note 171; see also Howells, supra note 14, at 216.
175 See 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 5(1); Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 1(1) (giving effect to the EC Directive); EC Directive, supra note 2, art. 11; Stephen J. Werber, The Constitutional Dimension of a National Products Liability Statute of Repose, 40 Vill. L. Rev. 985, app. at 1053–55 (1995); see generally, Product Liability Desk Reference, supra note 174. Section 1(1) of the Consumer Protection Act incorporates the EC Directive that provides that each Member State “shall provide in their legislation” for a ten-year statute of repose. See Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 1(1); EC Directive, supra note 2, art. 11.
176 4 Am. Prod. Liab. 3d, § 47:55 (1990).
177 See Werber, supra note 175, app. at 1053–55; see also Product Liability Desk Reference, supra note 171, at 21 (explaining Arizona found its statute of repose unconstitutional).
178 See, e.g., Product Liability Desk Reference, supra note 171, at 121, 153, 161, 215, 267.
179 See 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 5(1); Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 1(1); EC Directive, supra note 2, art. 11.
180 See 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 5(1); Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 1(1); EC Directive, supra note 2, art. 11.
181 See 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 5(1); EC Directive, supra note 2, art. 11.
182 See, e.g., Howells, supra note 14, at 232; Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 672; Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 359–62; Mori, supra note 103, at 121; Cohen, supra note 3, at 129; Marcuse, supra note 6, at 367.
183 See, e.g., Howells, supra note 14, at 232; Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 672; Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 359–62; Mori, supra note 103, at 121; Cohen, supra note 3, at 129; Marcuse, supra note 6, at 367.
184 See Howells, supra note 14, at 232; Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 672; Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 359–62; Marcuse, supra note 6, at 367.
185 See Howells, supra note 14, at 232. The attitude towards litigation in the United States has been described as stemming from a “frontier mentality.” See id. “[W]hereas in the past Americans would have shot someone who injured them, they now take them to court.” Id.
186 See Michael J. Saks, Do We Really Know Anything About the Behavior of the Tort Litigation System—and Why Not?, 140 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1147, app. B at 1292 (1992).
187 See Cohen, supra note 3, at 118 & n.59.
188 See Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 359; Lundmark, supra note 4, at 242–43.
189 See Stapleton, supra note 5, at 20–22; Lundmark, supra note 4, at 245.
190 See Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 359–60.
191 See id.
192 See id.
193 See Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 672; Cohen, supra note 3, at 129–30; Marcuse, supra note 6, at 367.
194 See Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 672; Marcuse, supra note 6, at 367.
195 Compare Cohen, supra note 3, at 153 & n.318 with Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 704–05.
196 See Mori, supra note 103, at 121; Cohen, supra note 3, at 129.
197 See Cohen, supra note 3, at 140, 147.
198 See Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 709; Griffiths et al., supra note 65, at 375; Mori, supra note 103, at 121; Cohen, supra note 3, at 125.
199 See Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 709; Cohen, supra note 3, at 125.
200 See Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 709.
201 See id.
202 See id.
203 See id. at 708–09.
204 See Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 375; Mori, supra note 103, at 121.
205 See Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 709; Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 375; Mori, supra note 103, at 121; Marcuse, supra note 6, at 368.
206 See Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 375.
207 See id.
208 See Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 709–11; Mori, supra note 103, at 121; Cohen, supra note 3, at 125; Marcuse, supra note 6, at 368.
209 See Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 709–11; Cohen, supra note 3, at 125.
210 See Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 676–77.
211 See id. at 676.
212 See id. This number works out to approximately one attorney for every 640 Americans.
213 See Miller & Lovell, supra note 14, at 273–75; Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 696, 707–08; Mori, supra note 103, at 115.
214 See Miller & Lovell, supra note 14, at 273–75; Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 696; Mori, supra note 103, at 115; see also EC Directive, supra note 2, art. 7.
215 See Miller & Lovell, supra note 14, at 273–75; Mori, supra note 103, at 115.
216 See Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 696.
217 See id. at 707–08.
218 Zentaro Kitagawa, Structure and Operation of Japanese Law, in 1 Doing Business in Japan (MB) § 3.04[4](Zentaro Kitagawa ed., 1989).
219 See Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 707–08; Mori, supra note 103, at 115; Cohen, supra note 3, at 126–27.
220 See Howells, supra note 14, at 231–32; Yasuhiro Fujita, Japan, in 1 Products Liability: An International Manual of Practice § 6.1.1 (Warren Freedman, Esq. ed., 1987); Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 375; Lundmark, supra note 4, at 258; Cohen, supra note 3, at 127–28.
221 See Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 375.
222 See Fujita, supra note 220, § 6.1.1; Cohen, supra note 3, at 127–28.
223 See Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 375.
224 See id.; see also Lundmark, supra note 4, at 258.
225 See Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 393–94; Mori, supra note 103, at 115.
226 See Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 393–95.
227 See id. at 395.
228 See Mori, supra note 103, at 115.
229 See Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 713.
230 See id. at 712.
231 See supra notes 144–230 and accompanying text.
232 See Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 670.
233 See Cohen, supra note 3, at 175; Report on PL Law Gives Mixed Reviews, Mainichi Daily News, July 17, 1998, at 14, available in LEXIS, World Library, MAINWS File; see also Court orders McDonald’s Japan arm to pay 100,000 yen, Japan Wkly. Monitor, July 5, 1999, available in LEXIS, Japan Country Files (court awarded one quarter of requested amount for injury incurred after consuming orange juice from McDonald’s establishment); Sakai city ordered to pay 45 mil. yen over food poisoning, Japan Econ. Newswire, Sept. 10, 1999, available in LEXIS, Japan Country Files (court awarded just over one half requested amount for food poisoning resulting from O-157 strain of E-coli bacteria in school food).
234 See Cohen, supra note 3, at 160–72; Industry News: Nippon Cement Orders 400 Metal Detectors, Comline-Consumer Goods, June 24, 1999, available in LEXIS, Japan Country Files.
235 See Cohen, supra note 3, at 160–72.
236 See id. at 164–65.
237 See id. at 166–67; see also 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 4(1).
238 See Cohen, supra note 3, at 161–63.
239 See id. at 167.
240 See id. at 163–64.
241 See id. at 163.
242 See id. at 164.
243 See Cohen, supra note 3, at 163–64.
244 See id. at 164.
245 See id. at 129, 164.
246 See id. at 172–73; Agency slows down progress of consumer-protection bill: Review Needed to Win Support, Sakaiya Contends, Nikkei Wkly., Mar. 15, 1999, at 3, available in LEXIS, World File, NIKKEI File [hereinafter Agency slows down progress]; Japan Trade Ministry to Ease Product-Safety Regulations, Asia Pulse, Mar. 19, 1998, available in LEXIS, World Library, APULSE File.
247 See Japan Trade Ministry to Ease Product-Safety Regulations, supra note 246; cf. Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 688.
248 See Japan Trade Ministry to Ease Product-Safety Regulations, supra note 246.
249 See Agency slows down progress, supra note 246, at 3; Government seeks to protect consumers with new contract bill, Mainichi Daily News, Aug. 15, 1997, at 14, available in LEXIS, World Library, MAINWS File.
250 See Cohen, supra note 3, at 154.
251 See generally 1994 Act, supra note 8; Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81; EC Directive, supra note 2.
252 See supra notes 144–230 and accompanying text.
253 See id.
254 See 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 2(3); Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 2; Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability, supra note 10, § 2 cmt. e; Restatement (Second) of Torts, supra note 10, § 402A cmt. c.
255 See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability, supra note 10, § 2 cmt. e; Restatement (Second) of Torts, supra note 10, § 402A cmt. c.
256 See 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 2(3); Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 2.
257 See 1994 Act, supra note 8, art. 5(1); Consumer Protection Act, supra note 81, § 1(1); see also EC Directive, supra note 2, art. 11.
258 See, e.g., EC Directive, supra note 2, at 29; see also Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 687–88; Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 369–75; Cohen, supra note 3, at 148–50.
259 See EC Directive, supra note 2, at 29; see also Behrens & Raddock, supra note 4, at 687–88; Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 369–75; Cohen, supra note 3, at 148–150.
260 See Griffiths et al., supra note 62, at 359.
261 See supra notes 220–30 and accompanying text.
262 See id.
263 See supra notes 144–230 and accompanying text.
264 See id.
265 See supra notes 196–212 and accompanying text.
266 See supra notes 153–59, 214–16 and accompanying text.
267 See supra notes 153–59, 254–56 and accompanying text.