1 See Geoff Gilbert, Aspects of Extradition Law 132 (1991).
2 See generally Supplementary Treaty Concerning the Extradition Treaty Between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, June 25, 1985, T.I.A.S. No. 12050 [hereinafter Supplementary Treaty], reprinted in S. Rep. No. 99–17 at 15–17 (1986) [hereinafter Senate Report]; Extradition Treaty Between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Oct. 21, 1976, U.S.-U.K., 28 U.S.T. 227, T.I.A.S. No. 8468 [hereinafter 1977 Treaty].
3 See 1977 Treaty, supra note 2, art. V(1)(c)(i); Senate Report, supra note 2, at 1.
4 See, e.g., Supplementary Treaty, supra note 2; In re Requested Extradition of Doherty, 599 F. Supp. 270 (S.D.N.Y. 1984).
5 See generally Northern Ireland Emergency Provisions Act, ch. 5 (1978) [hereinafter EPA].
6 See, e.g., Supplementary Treaty, supra note 2; In re Requested Extradition of Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 158 F.3d 462 (9th Cir. 1998), reh’g granted, 183 F.3d 944 (9th Cir. 1999); In re Requested Extradition of Smyth, 61 F.3d 711 (9th Cir. 1995), rev’g, 863 F. Supp. 1137 (N.D. Cal. 1994).
7 See Supplementary Treaty, supra note 2, art. 3(a).
8 See generally In re Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 158 F.3d 462; In re Smyth, 61 F.3d 711.
9 158 F.3d 462.
10 See id. at 475.
11 See Brian Barton, A Pocket History of Ulster 11 (1996).
12 See id.
13 See id. at 27.
14 See id. at 36.
15 See In re Requested Extradition of Smyth, 863 F. Supp. 1137, 1139–40 (N.D. Cal. 1994), rev’d 61 F.3d 711 (9th Cir. 1995).
16 See id.
17 See id. at 1140; see also Paul Arthur & Keith Jeffery, Northern Ireland Since 1968, 37 (1988) (describing how the militant PIRA emerged in the late 1960s after disillusionment with the stagnant Official IRA).
18 See In re Smyth, 863 F. Supp. at 1140.
19 See id.
20 See Caroline Kennedy-Pipe, The Origins of the Present Troubles in Northern Ireland 41–42 (1997).
21 See id.
22 See id. at 46.
23 See id. at 48.
24 See ‘Real IRA’ Accepts Blame for Bombing, Orlando Sentinel, Aug. 19, 1998, at A3.
25 See id.
26 See Bill Glauber, Peace Comes to N. Ireland, Baltimore Sun, Apr. 11, 1998, at 1A.
27 See Marjorie Miller, Victory Ushers in Era of Hope for Northern Ireland Vote, L.A. Times, May 24, 1998, at A1.
28 See id. This transition occurred at midnight on December 1, 1999, thus fulfilling one of the most important provisions of the Good Friday agreement. See Ray Moseley, New Era for Nothern Ireland, Chi. Trib., Dec. 3, 1999, at A1; Fawn Vrazo, Northern Ireland Gains Self-Rule, Hous. Chronicle, Dec. 2, 1999, at 29.
29 See Ray Moseley, New Era for Nothern Ireland, Chi. Trib., Dec. 3, 1999, at A1; Fawn Vrazo, Northern Ireland Gains Self-Rule, Hous. Chronicle, Dec. 2, 1999, at 29.
30 See supra notes 19–22 and accompanying text.
31 See John Jackson & Sean Doran, Judge Without Jury: Diplock Trials in the Adversary System 8 (1995).
32 See id.
33 See Report of the Commission to Consider Legal Procedures to Deal with Terrorist Activities in Northern Ireland, 1972, Cmnd. 5185, at 1 (Lord Diplock, Chairman) [hereinafter Diplock Report]; Jackson & Doran, supra note 31, at 8.
34 See Jackson & Doran, supra note 31, at 8.
35 See Diplock Report, supra note 33, at 1; Jackson & Doran, supra note 31, at 8.
36 See Diplock Report, supra note 33, at 3. The commission, report, and certain elements therein have taken on the name of the commission’s chairman, Lord Diplock.
37 See Diplock Report, supra note 33, at 18.
38 See id. at 17.
39 See id.
40 See id.
41 See id.
42 Diplock Report, supra note 33, at 18.
43 See Jackson & Doran, supra note 31, at 17.
44 See id.
45 Id. at 18 (citations omitted).
46 See In re Requested Extradition of Smyth, 61 F.3d 711, 713–14 (citations omitted).
47 See In re Requested Extradition of Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 158 F.3d 462, 464 (9th Cir. 1998), reh’g granted, 183 F.3d 944 (9th Cir. 1999); In re Smyth, 61 F.3d at 714.
48 See EPA, supra note 5, at app. sched. 4; Kelly D. Talcott, Questions of Justice: U.S. Courts’ Powers of Inquiry Under Article 3(a) of the United States-United Kingdom Supplementary Extradition Treaty, 62 Notre Dame L. Rev. 474, 478–84 (1987). The EPA’s scheduled offenses include a wide variety of crimes against persons or property, not all of which are necessarily politically motivated. See Talcott, supra at 481–82. However, the Attorney General for Northern Ireland may certify a crime as “nonscheduled” (and thus not subject to the provisions of the EPA) if the government believes it has no connection with terrorism. See id. at 482. Thus, those accused of politically motivated crimes are subject to an entirely different criminal justice system from the rest of the populace. See id.
49 See generally EPA, supra note 5.
50 See id.
51 See id. §§ 11, 13.
52 See id. § 11(3).
53 See Talcott, supra note 48, at 479 n.29.
54 See id. at 481.
55 See EPA, supra note 5, § 18.
56 See id. § 4.
57 See id. §§ 21, 25 (emphasis added).
58 See id. § 26.
59 See id. § 2.
60 See EPA, supra note 5, § 2.
61 See id. § 8.
62 See Talcott, supra note 48, at 483.
63 See EPA, supra note 5, § 7; see also discussion of “Diplock Courts,” supra notes 37–42 and accompanying text.
64 See In re Requested Extradition of Smyth, 61 F.3d 711, 714 (9th Cir. 1995).
65 See Daniel T. Kiely, Jr., Note, The Compromise Between Outrage and Compassion: Article 3(a) and In re Requested Extradition of Smyth, 30 Cornell Int’l L.J. 587, 599 (1997).
66 See 1977 Treaty, supra note 2.
67 Id. art. III(1).
68 See infra notes 69–71 and accompanying text.
69 See Gilbert, supra note 1, at 52.
70 1977 Treaty, supra note 2, art. III(1)(a).
71 Id. art. V(1)(c)(i).
72 See Restatement (Third) of Foreign Relations Law § 476(2) (1986).
73 In re Requested Extradition of Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 158 F.3d 462, 465 (9th Cir. 1998), reh’g granted, 183 F.3d 944 (9th Cir. 1999).
74 See Kiely, supra note 65, at 605.
75 See “Extradition—Political Offences,” Encyclopedia of Public International Law 331 (1992).
76 See In re Requested Extradition of Smyth, 61 F.3d 711, 714 (9th Cir. 1995).
77 See Gilbert, supra note 1, at 132–33.
78 Id. at 133.
79 See In re Smyth, 61 F.3d at 714.
80 See In re Extradition of McMullen, Mag. No. 3–70–1099 M.G. (N.D. Cal. May 11, 1979), reprinted in 132 Cong. Rec. 16,585–86 (1986).
81 Id.
82 See id. at 16,586.
83 See In re Requested Extradition of Mackin, 668 F.2d 122, 124–25 (2d Cir. 1981).
84 Id. at 125.
85 See In re Requested Extradition of Doherty, 599 F. Supp. 270, 277 (S.D.N.Y. 1984).
86 Id. at 276.
87 See In re Requested Extradition of Smyth, 61 F.3d 711, 714 (9th Cir. 1995).
88 See id.
89 See 132 Cong. Rec. 16,586 (1986) (comments of Sen. Lugar).
90 Supplementary Treaty, supra note 2.
91 See id. arts. 1, 3.
92 Id. arts. 1(b),(c),(d).
93 See id. art. 1; 1977 Treaty, supra note 2, art. V.
94 See supra notes 79–86 and accompanying text (discussing these cases).
95 See 132 Cong. Rec. 16,586 (1986) (comments of Sen. Lugar).
96 See Supplementary Treaty, supra note 2, art. 3(a).
97 See Leslie A. Firtell, Note, The Evidentiary Burden in Establishing an Article 3(a) Defense to Extradition in Light of In re the Requested Extradition of James Joseph Smyth, a Case of First Impression, 4 Cardozo J. Int’l & Comp. L. 73, 77 n.25 (1996). This clause was devised in response to the Philippine Government’s plan to file false charges against Nimoy Aquino to secure his extradition from the United States. See id.
98 Supplementary Treaty, supra note 2, art. 3(a).
99 See Senate Report, supra note 2, at 4.
100 In re Requested Extradition of Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 158 F.3d 462, 473 (9th Cir. 1998), reh’g granted, 183 F.3d 944 (9th Cir. 1999).
101 Supplementary Treaty, supra note 2, art. 3(a).
102 See In re Requested Extradition of Smyth, 61 F.3d 711, 714 (9th Cir. 1995).
103 See id.
104 See id.; Judith Hippler Bello & Valerie Epps, Rule of Expanded Political Offense-Type Exception, 90 Am. J. Int’l L. 296, 297 (1996).
105 See Supplementary Treaty, supra note 2, art. 3(a).
106 See Kiely, supra note 65, at 612–13.
107 See 132 Cong. Rec. 16,607 (1986) (remarks of Sen. Eagleton).
108 See id.
109 See 132 Cong. Rec. 16,800 (1986) (remarks of Sen. Kerry).
110 See id.
111 See In re Requested Extradition of Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 158 F.3d 462 (9th Cir. 1998), reh’g granted, 183 F.3d 944 (9th Cir. 1999); In re Requested Extradition of Smyth, 61 F.3d 711 (9th Cir. 1995); In re Extradition of Howard, 996 F.2d 1320 (1st Cir. 1993).
112 See In re Howard, 996 F.2d at 1323.
113 See id. at 1324.
114 See id.
115 See id.
116 See id.
117 See In re Howard, 996 F.2d at 1333.
118 Id. at 1330.
119 See id. at 1332.
120 See id. at 1331.
121 See In re Requested Extradition of Smyth, 61 F.3d 711, 713–14 (9th Cir. 1995).
122 See id. at 713.
123 See id. at 712.
124 Conditions in Belfast’s Maze Prison were “terrible” at this time, and prisoners were routinely treated in ways that would be unacceptable in a U.S. prison. See In re Requested Extradition of Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 972 F. Supp. 1253, 1270 (N.D. Cal. 1997), rev’d 158 F.3d 462 (9th Cir. 1998). The Maze Prison was the site of many protests and hunger strikes by prisoners. See id.
125 See In re Smyth, 61 F.3d at 713.
126 See id.
127 See id.
128 See In re Requested Extradition of Smyth, 863 F. Supp. 1137, 1139–48 (N.D. Cal. 1994), rev’d 61 F.3d 711 (9th Cir. 1995).
129 See id. at 1155.
130 Id.
131 See id.
132 See In re Smyth, 61 F.3d at 720.
133 Id.
134 See id.
135 See id.
136 See id. at 722.
137 In re Requested Extradition of Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 158 F.3d 462 (9th Cir. 1998), reh’g granted, 183 F.3d 944 (9th Cir. 1999).
138 See id. at 464.
139 See id.
140 See id.
141 See id.
142 See In re Requested Extradition of Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 972 F. Supp. 1253, 1259 (N.D. Cal. 1997), rev’d 158 F.3d 462 (9th Cir. 1998); In re Requested Extradition of Smyth, 61 F.3d 711, 714 (9th Cir. 1995).
143 See In re Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 158 F.3d at 464.
144 See In re Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 972 F. Supp. at 1260.
145 See Supplementary Treaty, supra note 2, art. 1(d) (proscribing “an offense involving the use of a bomb . . . .”) (emphasis added); In re Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 972 F. Supp. at 1260.
146 See In re Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 972 F. Supp. at 1262. The judge held that “when one is carrying a large bomb, gasoline and detonating paraphernalia to place them in a downtown city area on a business day, and an arrest is the only thing that stops an explosion from occurring, that is an act ‘involving’ ‘the use of a bomb’ . . . .” Id.
147 See id.
148 Id. at 1260.
149 See id. at 1274–75. “Respondents were convicted because they committed serious crimes, not because they are Catholics or Nationalists or Republicans . . . . And if returned to Northern Ireland, respondents’ further punishment will not be because of their beliefs, but because of the crimes which they committed.” Id. at 1275.
150 See In re Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 158 F.3d at 475–76. Note: Since the publication of this decision, the Ninth Circuit has withdrawn its opinion pending a rehearing to consider some of the very issues discussed in Part IV of this Note. See In re Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 183 F.3d at 944–45.
151 See In re Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 158 F.3d at 472.
152 See id.
153 See id. at 474.
154 See id. at 475–76.
155 As the court’s decision regarding Brennan involved simple treaty interpretation, discussion of that aspect of the case is beyond the scope of this Note.
156 See In re Requested Extradition of Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 158 F.3d 462, 472–75 (9th Cir. 1998), reh’g granted, 183 F.3d 944 (9th Cir. 1999).
157 See id.
158 See id. at 473.
159 See id. at 473–74.
160 See id. In arriving at this conclusion, the court noted that James Smyth himself had not suffered any such discriminatory punishment since being extradited and returned to the Maze Prison. See In re Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 158 F.3d at 473.
161 See id. at 474–76.
162 See id. at 474.
163 See id.
164 See id. at 474–75.
165 See In re Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 158 F.3d at 474-75.
166 Id. at 474.
167 See id. at 475.
168 Id.
169 See id. at 475–76.
170 See In re Artt, Brennan, Kirby,, 158 F.3d at 475.
171 See 18 U.S.C. § 3184 (1994).
172 See Supplementary Treaty, supra note 2, art. 3(a).
173 Senate Report, supra note 2, at 4.
174 See In re Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 158 F.3d at 475.
175 See infra notes 176–78 and accompanying text.
176 See supra note 109 and accompanying text.
177 In re Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 158 F.3d at 475 (emphasis added).
178 See Supplementary Treaty, supra note 2, art. 3(a).
179 See 18 U.S.C. § 3184 (1994) (relegating extradition proceedings to the judiciary).
180 See id.
181 See id.
182 See id.
183 See infra notes 184–85 and accompanying text.
184 See In re Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 158 F.3d at 476. (Goodwin, J., dissenting).
185 See id.
186 See id. at 474.
187 See Supplementary Treaty, supra note 2, art. 3(a).
188 See id.
189 See id.; In re Artt, Brennan, Kirby, 158 F.3d at 475.
190 See Supplementary Treaty, supra note 2, art. 3(a).
191 See id.